*By Julie Peterson

“There isn’t enough time in a day.” “I ran out of time.” “Who has time for that?”

Does this messaging sound familiar? In today’s stress-fueled world, a shortage of time is part of life for most people. But new research says simple relief may be available for humanity’s disordered sense of time. The solution could be as simple as stepping into the sunlight. 

Time in Nature is Different

A recent article published in the British Ecological Society’s journal, People and Nature, proposes at least two ways nature affects people's sense of time: altered perception and altered perspective. Author Ricardo Correia examines and contributes to a considerable body of scientific evidence regarding the mental and physical health benefits associated with nature immersion and being away from the hustle and bustle of urban settings.

Correia, an assistant professor of the Biodiversity Unit at the University of Turku in Finland, says the concept of “time scarcity” is diminished when people do things in a natural setting—and this contributes to one’s overall well-being.  

Altered Perception

Most people have experienced an altered sense of time while immersed in an activity they love; the phrase “Time flies when you’re having fun” is more than a cliché. In contrast, when someone is anxious, bored, in pain, or otherwise uncomfortable, time seems to drag.

Of course, measured clock time is moving at the same rate in all instances, but human perception of time changes based on what a person is doing. Correia explains, “Time perception is shaped by various contextual factors, including the contents of the time period and the cognitive, emotional, and bodily characteristics of the experiencer.” In other words, a person’s perception of time is subjective, depending on how and where they are—both inside and out. 

The reasons behind the phenomenon of an altered sense of time while in nature are not completely understood, but it has been shown that “people who spend time in nature tend to overestimate the duration of that experience and show a more positive outlook of the past, present, and future, with less focus on a single time perspective,” writes Correia. 

In a 2015 study of 45 college students who were asked to complete certain tasks while exposed to images of natural or urban settings, those who were exposed to natural settings estimated the duration of the session to be longer. The authors suggested that the differences may be due to shifts in attention or arousal between urban and natural places. 

A similar study published in the Journal of Environmental Psychology in 2017 asked participants to walk in an urban setting and in a natural setting. The perceived duration of a walk in an urban setting was mostly accurate, while the length of the nature walk was overestimated. The authors similarly proposed that shifts in attention and mood explained observed differences. 

Different Perceptions of time.  ©pexels

Taking into account other comparable studies, Correia sees an indication “that time is experienced differently and is perceived as longer in nature compared to urban environments.”

Altered Perspective

Besides altering a person’s perception of time duration, being in nature also affects their time perspective. A 2015 study published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences compared participants who took a 90-minute walk in nature with those who took a similar walk in a city. The participants were then asked about their feelings of rumination (focusing on negativity from the past). Those who walked in nature reported decreased rumination. Brain scans of the nature-walk participants also showed reduced neural activity in the part of the brain linked to risk for mental illness as opposed to those who walked through an urban setting. 

Mental and Physical Health

A United Nations report has projected that up to 70% of all people will be urban dwellers by 2050. While city life has its advantages, it corresponds to less time spent in nature. The results of urbanization have been associated with increased levels of anxiety disorders and depression. On the other hand, there are numerous studies showing measurable health benefits after time spent in nature, which may be one of the most significant findings of these types of studies. 

The mental health benefits of time in nature include superior attention, memory, and impulse inhibition, along with increased feelings of subjective well-being. Researchers have also characterized the ways in which images and sounds from nature can lead to decreased stress and negative emotions after being exposed to stressful stimuli. There is ample scientific evidence to support what people who camp, hike, garden, forest bathe, and seek green spaces for relaxation already know—time in nature bestows psychological benefits.

Time spent in nature offers psychological and physical benefits.  ©pexels

The therapeutic benefits of time in nature also extend to our physical bodies. An article from UC Davis Health points out that being in nature can reduce cortisol levels, muscle tension, heart rate, and blood pressure, and can increase vitamin D levels that boost blood cells, bones, and the immune system. 

Park Prescriptions

Thanks in part to the evidence such studies have provided, medical doctors are even giving out “park prescriptions“ to encourage patients with frenetic lives and myriad ailments to soak up some of nature’s benefits. But how much time does the prescription take from an already hectic schedule where “time deficit” is one of the ailments? 

It turns out that the benefits of natural spaces come with small doses. Dr. Brent Bauer, a general internal medicine physician at Mayo Clinic, suggests two hours each week.

In a 2021 article published in Prevention, Dr. Rachel Hopman-Droste, a neuroscientist at Northeastern University, was interviewed about her “20-5-3 rule” for spending time outside to reduce stress and be healthier. She recommends 20 minutes outside three days a week (with no cell phone); 5 hours in semi-wild nature every month; and 3 days off the grid each year. 

Green Spaces

Most people spend the majority of their time in buildings or vehicles and it may not feel convenient to carve out time and get out into green spaces. The hope is that enjoying the benefits of nature in small chunks will help make it a way of life.

This may be achieved by walking down the tree-lined side of the street or putting those toes in the grass. Taking time to sit outside and listen to birds sing or watch clouds could help alter a mood.

What about popping outside during a break from work or taking lunch outside under a tree? Find a grassy, tree-filled park for the family to play in and explore (a pond or stream is a plus). Find nearby hiking trails, botanical gardens, and nature conservancies. Go camping.

No matter how one gets out there, it’s important to exhale deeply and connect with surroundings through all the senses. Be mindful. As relaxation and rejuvenation kick in, see if there’s a sense within of slowing down, almost as if time grows on trees.

While researchers continue to investigate what it is that links time in nature to wellness and a person’s sense of time, there is enough evidence to inform city planning and infrastructure design. More green spaces and easily accessible natural experiences are needed to ensure whole health for an increasingly urban society.

Oneness

It is essential to unplug from technology and envision bridging the gap between one’s hurried self and the rhythm of the natural world. Not just for the boost to mental and physical health, but for a higher understanding of human consciousness and connectedness to all things.

Professor Chris Laszlo at Case Western Reserve University pointed out in a 2022 article that quantum physics suggests that “at the most infinitesimal level of the universe, there is a connected and coherent unified field, a field of energy and information that connects everything. … Along with these fields of energy, vibrational fields of energy connect everything, not just metaphorically—but actually.”

One hypothesis of Laszlo’s research is that people who experience a greater sense of connection to nature are more likely to care for others and future generations. They might gain stronger pro-social and pro-environmental behaviors. If this is true, it has much deeper implications for the need to get outdoors—it not only changes a person’s health in this lifetime, but the wellness of everyone around them, those that will come after them, and Earth. 

*Julie Peterson writes science-based articles about holistic health, environmental issues, and sustainable living from her organic farm in Wisconsin. 

By The Earth & I Editorial Team 

Two of humanity’s most pressing environmental crises—soil degradation and biodiversity loss—can be resolved with bold actions and by nurturing universal “environmental stewardship,” two eminent scholars told a conference held recently in a suburb of Washington, D.C.

The Earth’s environment is “everybody’s responsibility,” and there is no other choice but to work together, said Dr. Rattan Lal, a renowned soil scientist and 2020 World Food Prize Laureate, and Dr. Douglas Tallamy, a leading expert on species invasion and entomology at the University of Delaware.

The scholars gave their remarks at a June 15 conference in Gambrills, Maryland, with the theme, “Rejuvenating Our Ecosystems,” held in honor of UN World Environment Day (June 5) and sponsored by the Hyo Jeong International Foundation for Environmental Peace (HJIFEP), publisher of The Earth & I.* Partnering organizations for the event included the Universal Peace Federation (UK and USA), the Interfaith Partnership for the Chesapeake, University of Maryland Extension Anne Arundel County Master Gardeners, The Anne Arundel County Watershed Stewards Academy, and the Women’s Federation for World Peace (USA).

The Threat of Soil Degradation 

“About 40% of global soils are degraded,” which impact “about 50% of the world’s population,” said Dr. Lal, founder and director of The Ohio State University’s Rattan Lal Center for Carbon Management and Sequestration. (See The Earth & I, August 2021.)

Soil is Earth’s “negative emissions entity,” and if humanity continues to take more from soil than it puts into it, environmental degradation will only worsen, he said.

Soil degradation results in biodiversity loss and reduced agronomic production, which affects economic prosperity and people's health. Soil degradation also reduces access to clean water, worsens drought, and, of course, aggravates food insecurity,” Dr. Lal added.

The professor reviewed the many ways soil can be degraded, such as “compaction; erosion; runoff; drought; and chemical degradation, which includes acidification, salinization, elemental imbalance, and nutrient mining.” Biological degradation includes “depletion of soil organic matter content and increase in pathogens.” There are also types of land misuse like excessive tillage, overgrazing, residue removal or burning, excessive water use, and war and political instability.

The Biodiversity Crisis

In addition to soil degradation, there are also global challenges with biodiversity, especially insect loss, said conference co-presenter Dr. Tallamy, author of  Bringing Nature Home: How You Can Sustain Wildlife with Native Plants.

“We're going to have to save functioning ecosystems on at least half of the planet, or they will disappear everywhere,” Dr. Tallamy said, referencing Edward O. Wilson’s book, Half-Earth: Our Planet's Fight for Life, which calls for half the planet to be dedicated to nature.

Functional ecosystems are “built from a series of very specialized interactions, largely between animals and plants,” said Dr. Tallamy. But today, many of these ecosystems are in trouble as the result of what is called “human-dominated landscapes” or places where nature “hangs on by a thread.”

Human development has even led to an “insect apocalypse,” or massive loss of insects due to human activities to remove the weeds that insects and pollinators need to thrive. “It turns out pollen specialization is very common in our native bees,” Dr. Tallamy explained. “We've got between 3,600 and 4,000 species of native bees, and over a third of them can only reproduce on the pollen of particular plants.”  

Moreover, insect loss is deadly to bird populations, since they feed their young with insects, Dr. Tallamy said. The US and Canada alone have lost a total of “3 billion breeding birds in the last 50 years” or one third of the North American bird population.

Bold Solutions

One bold solution is to become serious about building public and private landscapes that embrace the whole picture in ecosystems—including the needs of insects, plants, and birds—with each part contributing toward the life of the whole, Dr. Tallamy said.

“We need a new approach to conservation here in the US," Dr. Tallamy said. “We have to go beyond conservation into restoration. We have to rebuild the nature that we have destroyed.”

“It's going to take an army of private citizens to do it, but we have an army of private citizens to do it,” he added.  

“Where should we start?” Dr. Tallamy asked the audience. Since large swaths of land are in private hands, “I think the solution is to start to practice conservation outside of parks and preserves—on [privately held] landscapes,” he said.

“Seventy-eight percent of the lower 48 states is privately owned, and 85.6% of the land east of the Mississippi is privately owned. If we don't practice conservation on private property, we're going to fail, and failure is not an option.”

To those who think what they do on their property is no one else’s business, Tallamy responded, “What happens in our yards does not stay in our yards. And this is where people who think they have the right to do whatever they want on their property are wrong. Does my neighbor have the right to kill [or] destroy my watershed? Does my neighbor have the right to destroy the pollinator communities that I need for the plants on my property? To destroy my food web? [Or] to not sequester carbon?”

He added that having incentives may be more effective than penalties for changing people’s minds: “If we change the tax incentives, you actually get a tax break for having less lawn or having keystone plants, [for example]; that changes minds ... quickly.”

Plant Choice Matters

The “building blocks” of these new ecosystems must be their most important contributors, Dr. Tallamy cautioned, noting that not all species contribute equally. Flowering plants are essential as are the pollinators that allow those plants to reproduce.

Laying out his plan, Dr. Tallamy said: “So now we have the food that animals need tied up in [these] plant tissues,” mostly in leaves where photosynthesis takes place. Animals are needed to disperse seeds, pollinate, and provide pest control. But to complete the picture, plants that attract the right insects must be present because most invertebrates don’t eat plants—they eat other invertebrates that eat the plants.  

Caterpillars Are Key

Dr. Tallamy knows the right insects for the job. “Caterpillars turn out to be enormously important in transferring energy from plants to animals. Caterpillars are transferring more energy from plants to other organisms than any other type of plant eater,” he said.

Citing his own experience feeding seed to Carolina chickadees in his backyard, Dr. Tallamy said only about 50% of their diet is seeds, even in winter, with the other 50% being insects and spiders. And, he noted, “when [the birds] reproduce, their babies can't eat seeds at all.”

In a healthy environment, Dr. Tallamy said, “96% of our terrestrial birds rear their young on insects, and most of those insects are caterpillars.”

So, how many caterpillars does it take to raise a nest of chickadees? “It takes 6,000 to 9,000 caterpillars to get one clutch of chickadees to the point where they leave the nest.”

Responding to a question from the audience, “What is the best way to count and identify the number of caterpillar species on my oak tree?” Tallamy said, “You have to look at the right time of year. Looking at night with a flashlight is the best way [since] the caterpillars are hiding during the day [and] the birds are very good at finding them.”

He added that the birds have “eaten just about everything that’s out there” during their reproduction phase, so that the end of July, early August [Mid-Atlantic region, USA] is “a very good time to look for caterpillars.”

But there is a drawback. Most plants do not support many caterpillars. “So, we have to be fussy about which plants we’re landscaping with,” said Dr. Tallamy. He cautions that one can try to landscape to attract monarch butterflies, for instance, “but they only like one of the milkweeds.”

“We are not going to rebuild functional ecosystems if you don't have functional food webs within those ecosystems, and that's not going to happen if we don't choose the right plants,” he emphasized.

Balancing Give and Take in Nature

Circling back to solutions for soil degradation, Dr. Lal unveiled a simple principle that guides his work with soil: “Soil organic matter is the heart of soil health.” This is why it is so important, he repeated, to not take more from soil than is put into it. Otherwise, the soil becomes degraded, and the only carbon negative entity (soil) and industry (farming) on the planet is thrown out of balance. And far worse, he said, “you are degrading all forms of life.”

Dr. Lal said this thinking comes from the “One Health” concept, rooted in Vedic literature, which recognizes the five elements of “soil, water, air, energy, and space” that constitute the human body. This is why “the health of soil, plants, animals, people, the environment, and the planet is one and indivisible.”

Dr. Lal emphasized the need for policy innovations, such as establishing a Soil Health Act (SHA) to protect the sustainable management of soil. Why, he asked, is there a Clean Air Act and a Clean Water Act but no such act for soil?

“We must also promote education on soil and the environment and the law of return that I mentioned,” he advised. “The law of return states that any substance we take from nature must be returned to the place from which it was taken.”

Self-Sustaining Solutions

Also vital to Dr. Lal’s plan is rewarding farmers for ecosystem services. “The word is not subsidy. You're not providing a handout, a donation, no! You are providing farmers with additional income to promote essential ecosystem services. That's a big difference,” he explained.

Humanity must focus on the re-carbonization of the terrestrial biosphere, he urged. Why re-carbonization? “We lost carbon from [wild] vegetation and soil when we converted to agriculture,” he said. “We must put it back.” This, he said, is the “bedrock” of sustainable development for which there are many practices.

“We have a moral duty to increase economic productivity from existing land, restore degraded land, and convert some agricultural land back to nature,” Dr. Lal added. By 2100, Dr. Lal’s goal is to return half of all crop land, which is 750 million hectares (1.85 billion acres) back to nature, as well as 3,700 million hectares (9.14 billion acres) of all grazing land. 

“Why do we keep on emphasizing greater food production when there is so much food waste?” he asked the audience. “The world produces enough food to feed 10 billion people.” Food and nutritional security must be achieved, he said, but not necessarily by producing more commodities. A promising avenue is to cut back food waste, which is conservatively estimated to be 30%, including in the US.

“Food,” Dr. Lal said, “should be considered as God's gift.” He added, “To a hungry man, God can appear only in the form of a loaf of bread, and that made from grains grown from a healthy soil. And therefore, wastage of that gift from God, which is essential to maintaining the good health of everybody concerned, is not acceptable.”

Dr. Lal also pleaded to stop using food as a weapon. “We increase access to food by addressing poverty, inequality, and war, especially war,” he said. Therefore, governments and organizations should improve food distribution and increase consumption of pulses [lentils, chickpeas, beans, and the like] and plant-based dishes while moderating consumption of meat.

Both scholars pointed to the necessity of people around the world collaborating to resolve these challenges.

Restoring the environment is “everyone’s responsibility,” said Dr. Tallamy. “Therefore, we must all work together,” Dr. Lal said. “Each of us is a victim and a culprit, so we all have a moral responsibility” to protect the environment.

*HJIFEP, publisher of The Earth & I, is a non-profit environmental service organization that sponsors environmental science conferences, including the ICUS and ICSG conference series. HJIFEP conferences feature presentations from eminent scientists on pressing global environmental issues and solutions.

HJIFEP’s mission is to build a world of peace in which all people live in harmony with the Creator, with one another, and with the natural environment. HJIFEP serves under the motto, “Loving Nature, Healing the Earth.”

Attendees of the "Rejuvenating Our Ecosystems" conference joined the event in-person and virtually from over 10 nations, including the UK, South Korea, Japan, The Netherlands, and Australia and included concerned citizens and environmental scientists alike, as attendance was open to all. The conference featured a vigorous global Q&A session with each of the scientists.

When University of Vermont conservation biologist Dr. Joe Roman is not studying invasive species, endangered species, and marine ecology, he is running a website called Eat the Invaders. Its premise is as simple as the website’s name: If invasive species, which have no natural predators, can become part of the human diet, it can decrease their numbers while feeding hungry diners. 

Roman’s website provides information for anyone interested in pigging out on wild boar or cooking up green crab or armored catfish. It offers colorful images of select invasives in the US with a brief description of each invasive, its territory and behavior, and any known history of when and how it arrived in the US. 

Roman is under no illusions that “invasivorism” (eating invasives) will eliminate these problems. “To be clear,” he says in a recent SciLine interview, “it’s unlikely that this type of harvest is going to result in the complete eradication of a species; we’re just not going to be able to work that hard. There’s always going to be one last animal out there.”   

But Roman and his allies do believe human consumption of invasive species can help reduce the $20 billion in damage they cause each year in the US.  

“Getting fresh-caught green crabs when they’re soft shells are easily as good as blue crabs,” Roman says “Same can be said about lionfish. It’s a firm white meat,” he adds, noting that he and others are encouraging chefs to explore using these species in dishes worldwide. 

There is already some proof that “eating the invaders” works, Roman notes. 

He cites studies on lionfish in the Bahamas that show that lionfish populations declined when efforts were focused on harvesting them for food. In addition, “the native fish biomass in the Bahamas increased as those [invasive] populations started to decline,” he says.  

“The key here is that eating invasives is fun, it’s delicious, it might have an impact, but it’s the last line in the sand,” Roman adds. The first line of defense is “stop the introduction of new species …  we’re not going to get anywhere if a new species comes in every year.” 

But “in the end, you know, when they’re here, and they’ve been here for a while, we can enjoy a good meal.” 

Sources: 

• https://www.sciline.org/environment-energy/eating-invasive-species/ 

• http://eattheinvaders.org/ 

In its fifth annual Global Electricity Review, London-based nonprofit and energy think tank Ember has produced the first comprehensive overview of changes in global electricity generation in 2023. A key finding is that renewable energy sources produced a record share of global electricity. 

1. Global electricity reached a record high in 2023 of 29,471 terawatt-hours (TWh), largely due to electric vehicles, heat pumps, electrolyzers, air conditioning, and data centers. 

2. The 627 TWh increase in electricity demand from 2022 was mostly from China (606 TWh) and India (99 TWh). These increases were mostly offset by decreases in the EU and US. 

3. Global electricity shares from renewables reached a record 30% in 2023, compared with 19% (15,277 TWh) in 2000. Electricity generation from solar (5.5% or 1,631 TWh) and wind (7.8% or 2,304 TWh) comprised close to half of the 30%. 

4. In 2023, global hydropower generation reached a five-year low of 4,210 TWh, partially due to droughts.  

5. Global electricity generation shares from nuclear remained unchanged in 2023 at 9.1% (2,686 TWh). 

6. Global electricity from coal increased modestly to 10,434 TWh in 2023 from 10,288 TWh in 2022. Around 95% of this increase came from countries severely affected by drought, including China, India, Vietnam, and Mexico. 

7. The world average of global electricity consumption per capita was 3.7 MWh in 2023. 

8. Canada and the US had the highest electricity consumption per capita, at 15.9 MWh and 12.7 MWh, respectively. South Korea was third at 11.8 MWh. 

9. The carbon dioxide intensity of global power generation reached a record low of 480 gCO2/kWh, down from 486 gCO2/kWh in 2022. 

10. Global power sector emissions were 14,153 million tons of carbon dioxide (MtCO2) in 2023. China had the highest emissions of 5,491 MtCO2 (39% of total), followed by the US at 1,570 MtCO2 (11% of total). 

11. In 2024, global electricity demand is projected to rise by 968 TWh (a 3.3% increase) to 30,439 TWh.  

Note: 1 MWh = 1 megawatt-hour; 1 TWh = 1 terawatt-hour 

Sources: 

• https://ember-climate.org/insights/research/global-electricity-review-2024/supporting-material/ 

*By Richard Kemeny

A new green energy craze is sweeping through Germany. Tiny solar power plants are popping up on balconies across the country, giving citizens the ability to take power directly from the sun and into their homes.

According to data from Germany’s Federal Network Agency (Bundesnetzagentur), demand is soaring for these plug-in balcony photovoltaic systems. Official figures suggest the number of registered systems has grown in the country from around 137,000 in 2022 to well over 400,000 in 2024—and the trend doesn’t seem to be slowing down.

This surge in balcony voltaic systems is thought to be spurred by several overlapping drivers, including climate change, Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, and skyrocketing energy prices. Given the right support and conditions, this simple, effective energy source could soon become more than a German zeitgeist (“the spirit of the time”) phenomenon and spread to homes around the world.

What Is Balcony Solar?

Much like solar farms and rooftop panels, balcony solar devices use photovoltaic cells to capture energy from sunlight and convert it to electricity. Also known as plug-in solar devices, they consist of small solar panels installed on available balcony space, either directly onto the railings or on stands. These plug-and-play systems do not need professional installation, giving an opportunity for those living in apartments or without access to a roof or large outdoor space to join the solar revolution.

The panels gather energy from sunlight to generate direct electric current. This is then converted via an inverter into the alternative current used in major energy grids. The system can then be plugged into an electrical outlet, adding solar-generated electricity straight into a household’s electrical system.

Electricity created by these devices can be used to power or charge appliances directly, which helps to bring down electricity costs. It gives everyday citizens a way to make their own lives less reliant on fossil fuels. In some cases—depending on local regulations and grid systems—electricity can even be fed back into the grid for a financial reward.

What About Efficiency?

Of course, the efficiency of solar panels depends on the amount of accessible sunlight. This means the energy generation capacity of balcony solar panels is necessarily limited, compared to rooftops, which can generally accommodate larger and greater numbers of panels.

Solar panels are able to produce around 15 watts (W) on average per square foot. A 10-square-foot balcony could therefore produce around 150W during “peak sun hours”—where sunlight intensity is an average of 1,000W per 10.5 feet. Balcony solar systems can also be combined with battery storage packs to store excess electricity for use during cloudy weather or at night—or if the electricity grid fails. 

There are other factors to consider. Balconies that are partially shaded by natural or man-made structures will see their energy production reduced. The orientation of an apartment can drastically affect how much sunlight it receives and how much electricity it can produce. In Germany, a 400W balcony solar system facing southwards at the right angle will generate around 320W on average; yet this would fall to half in slightly cloudy weather.

As is the case with many renewable energies, shifting weather patterns affect how much electricity is generated. In British summers, which can provide around five peak hours per day, this balcony could produce 750 watt-hours (Wh) though this figure would fall dramatically during the winter. Moreover, even though solar panels on balconies may not be as exposed as on rooftops, they are still vulnerable to strong winds and must be secured. Snow and hail can affect both balcony solar panels and rooftop panels.

Cost Considerations

If well maintained, solar panels usually last around 25 years. Ideally, one would want to recuperate one’s investment in the balcony power plant beforehand to make it worthwhile economically. Costs for solar panels and balcony solar systems vary. But if a 360W capacity balcony solar power system costs around $2,000 in the US, it could take up to 25 years to break even, depending on energy prices and weather conditions over that period.

In Germany, economic incentives appear to be a major driver behind the success of plug-in solar plants. In January 2023, the German government made balcony generators exempt from VAT (value-added tax). In Europe, the average costs of these systems can range between €1,500-3,000 (about $1,630 to $3,261), some are available for less than €300 (about $326).  Many of the costs are heavily subsidized by German states and/or municipalities (with direct subsidies of up to €500, or about $543) and can range up to €1,450 (about $1,576) per system depending on size and capacity.

Another reason behind Germany’s balcony solar boom is that many citizens live in apartments, making small solar systems an enticing option. Compared with US residences, German  homes demand far less energy: On average, German families use around 3,500 kWh of electricity per year while in the US, electricity demand is roughly triple that per household. Ironically, US electricity costs are a lot less—$0.13 / kWh compared with $0.52 / kWh in Germany.

Streamlining Solar Regulations

Germany has relaxed legislation surrounding balcony solar systems to further boost uptake, setting an example for like-minded European countries like Austria and Switzerland. In April 2024, the German government passed “Solarpaket 1,” a set of legal reforms including a simplified grid connection procedure for balcony power systems. The energy threshold for registration of balcony plants has also been raised from 600W to 800W.

Regulations can be more complex elsewhere, however. In the US, balcony power systems can require the same permits as large rooftop systems, making the whole process more onerous. In New York, height limits for balcony systems are set at 10 feet due to citywide building restrictions. While planning permission generally isn’t required, state and local restrictions may apply, which could be the deciding factor in whether someone chooses to invest in such a system. That being said, people wishing to install a balcony solar system in the US may be eligible for a federal solar tax credit.

But the potential is staggering for an American balcony solar revolution similar to that seen in Germany. Some estimates suggest plug-in balcony systems in the US could generate over 108 million MWh/year— four times the amount generated by the country’s solar industry in 2015—and offer somewhere in the order of $13 billion per year in energy savings.

The case of Germany shows how political will, funding, and the relaxation of red tape can dramatically increase uptake in this new, clean energy source. Inviting citizens into the energy creation process could transform consumers into “prosumers” who are more environmentally minded.

While a country’s energy consumption profile doesn’t turn on one system, balcony solar systems could have a measurable impact if their adoption could reach a critical mass.

*Richard Kemeny writes about archaeology, marine biology, oceanography, ecology, technology, and the environment

Ken Baker is the Culinary Director for Rethink Food (RF), a New York City-based non-profit that delivers sustainable solutions to the city’s problems of food insecurity and food waste. A nourish-your-neighbor evangelist of sorts, chef Ken shared with E&I Editor Jerry Chesnut about his team’s success in bringing nutritious, restaurant-quality, culturally celebrated cuisine to New Yorkers in need.

Together with RF Founder and CEO Matt Jozwiak and co-founder Daniel Humm (chef/owner of Eleven Madison Park), Baker and a small, innovative team have come up with a unique strategy that has already laid the groundwork—and the track record—to achieve RF’s vision of a nourished, neighborly New York.

RF’s “stewardship of care” culture has led to a partnership with the city, helped raise private funding from philanthropic sources, and attracted various “restaurant partners” that raise funds for RF via each restaurant’s ongoing marketing strategies. 

Earth & I: Ken, to my knowledge, Rethink Food’s approach to sustainable food security is unprecedented. How would you respond? 

Ken Baker: I'm sitting here in our beautiful, sustainable community kitchen at 116 West Houston Street [in the Greenwich Village neighborhood in lower Manhattan]. My team here makes beautiful meals to the tune of 18,900 meals a week from this space, and the balance of our meals—we do almost 400,000 meals a week as an organization—are created by our restaurant partners, these beautiful, diverse, primarily women- and minority-run small businesses that we are empowering to be micro-commissaries, just like we are in this space.

We raise funds and give them to these restaurants to empower them to be of service to their communities. This creates jobs too. All that we endeavor to do is create a broader community for greater human impact.

We are all culinary/hospitality professionals that know the industry, so we've leaned into the [typical] operations where restaurants, between lunch and dinner service, may only do a dozen covers [meals/customers] but still have a culinary team and staff on hand. 

Earth & I: Brilliant.  

Ken Baker: It's brilliant and simple at the same time. It's like, “why hasn't anyone else done this?” 

Earth & I: So many of New York’s great minority-owned small restaurants serve diverse ethnic cuisines from around the world. Is partnering with them how you're able to offer a wide variety of meals? 

Ken Baker: It’s a combination of our diverse restaurant partners and the diverse team here that I have the honor to lead. We intentionally have a diversity of people that reflects the diversity of the population we're serving. The 15,450 meals that go out the door here every week—which ramped up last week to 18,900 meals—that’s all powered by just 15 individuals, including drivers, a culinary team, and management.

We intentionally create a variety of meals that celebrate ethnic identity. That's our unique space. Just as people want to be spoken to in a preferred language and identified by preferred names, they also want to be eating food that's culturally celebrated, including our newest New Yorkers due to the migrant crisis.

We don't want to make one [meal] and blanket the city with it. This is New York and we're chefs who take pride in our ability to adapt within a sustainable model of zero excess waste production. With our [food collection and delivery] trucks, we’re capturing excess from our food ecosystem and adapting [our recipes] to what's coming off our trucks.

Our first investment in operations as an organization was into our refrigerated [delivery] fleet. That demonstrates the stewardship of care we want to ensure for our neighbors and partners, a level of dignity through intention that we here at Rethink talk about. We are very intentional about what we're doing.

If we're going to collect excess food from all these disparate partners—our retail partners, wholesale manufacturers and growers, big distributors, regular mom-and-pop restaurants, corporate cafeterias, academic cafeterias, and so on—we want to give that stewardship of care to our donors who are donating the food, particularly our retail partners like Whole Foods and Trader Joe's who have very high brand recognition and are incubating their brand in a certain light. We want to ensure that we can lend them that same level of stewardship that they espouse within their own operations but lend it also to our communities [who are receiving our restaurant-quality meals]. We're going to ensure stewardship of care in every process. As our logo suggests [see image above], the process starts with people and ends with people.  

Earth & I: Everyone should have a beautiful life. 

Ken Baker: Absolutely. I anchor my team—as leader of all internal operations, leader of the culinary team and the trucking logistics team—to the idea that we're just people feeding people. It's that shared sacred humanity. We all have to eat. Marginalization shouldn't dictate the quality of food you receive, particularly here in New York City, a food capital with food excess and, yet, where 1 in 7 New Yorkers and 1 in 4 children are food insecure.

We exist for those unseen communities. Our location here at 116 West Houston in the Village is in the 22nd wealthiest postal ZIP Code in America. With us being in this street-facing location surrounded by all this excess and luxury, we are a lighthouse speaking for broader New York, reminding everyone that part of the magic of New York City is community, this neighborliness that we've gotten away from.

The secret sauce of how we are able to grow is stewardship of care. For instance, we're collecting all this excess, but there are entrenched stigmas around what we do. People have this notion that we're “dumpster diving” or that we are just opening up bags and cans and reheating food. No! We are curating nutrient-dense, restaurant-quality meals. That stewardship of care starts and stops with our logistic teams who have the most external engagement with our Rethink Food network. 

The amazing, donated abundance that we're able to get allows us to provide diverse meal applications because we're picking up and collecting from Eleven Madison Park, for instance, our co-founder, chef Daniel Humm's famous three-star Michelin restaurant. There's something beautiful about those pristine ingredients—whatever they use in their tasting menu—that we are also utilizing. 

Capturing that excess, making meals and delivering them to New York's most needy individuals with no cost to them—it's beautiful. 

Earth & I: What comes to my mind is “golden rule gourmet.”

Ken Baker: Exactly. I think what you're alluding to is making something that you would want to make [for yourself], treating people the way you would want to be treated. Our family meal where we all sit down for lunch as an organization—even our support team in our headquarters on Sullivan Street—the whole organization sits down at noon, and we have a meal comprised of the production my culinary team has been making that morning. That's our commitment to communities that we serve; if it's good enough for us chefs, then it's good enough to go out to our communities.

People often ask me what makes Rethink Food different. Our unique currency in this space is that we are delivering a nutrient-dense, restaurant-quality meal that is anchored on a protein component, a carbohydrate component, and a vegetable component that goes out to every community. We're not dumbing down food for any arbitrary KPI [key performance indicator] or arbitrary price point. 

Earth & I: How do you get all those meals to all those people?

Ken Baker: I have the honor of leading our amazing trucking logistics team. Those are the mighty men that move our mission. They're the ones collecting the excess and bringing it back here to our sustainable community kitchen on Houston Street. That allows us to make meals here, but they also move the meals to our CBO [community-based organizations] partners from either our site here or from our restaurant partners. 

We lean into our delivery model of partnering with CBOs because it is hyper-efficient for our operation and allows us to have multiple impacts across the city.

You'll hear chef Daniel [Humm]—our co-founder—always talking about the power of food and how it's this powerful language. We want our food to sing a lullaby of love and compassion and community. So, we partnered with community-based organizations—institutions like nonprofits, faith-based institutions, schools, rec centers—that have already established themselves as an anchor in their community and have credibility in the community as neighbors.   

When Henry calls me up from St. John's Bread and Life during Lent and says, “Hey, can you make our menu on Fridays reflect the Lenten traditions of fish and no meat?” “Absolutely,” we say, because that's what dignity looks like.

Some of our religious CBO partners … are kosher and practicing Jews themselves. Their services are open to everybody, but they want to have the time to celebrate Passover themselves, so they call us up and say, “Hey, Ken. You know, it's Passover this week. Can you partner us with somebody who can run our services this Wednesday and Friday so that we can celebrate the Passover holidays?” “Absolutely.”

That's all about the broader community we're creating; that's where we allow for the needs of the operators, mostly volunteers, of a CBO. We want to allow them to celebrate. It’s very important to me to be defensive of our vast volunteer network. We need them. That's how we amplify our impact and provide capacity for our partners. 

CBO Partners Determine Service Models

The CBOs dictate the unique service to the community. Some of our CBO partners will reheat our food—coming to them in hotel aluminum pans—and put it out buffet style, for instance. Others will take the pans and create individual meals, which allows them to move the meals beyond their location.

Oftentimes, CBOs will have their own logistic services. For example, one of our CBOs, North Brooklyn Angels (NBA), retrofitted a defunct food truck to literally take the service to the community of North Brooklyn. Not being affixed in a location also allows them easy access to the church from which NBA distributes. 

CBOs are giving those meals out free-of-cost with no barriers to access. People often ask, “How does one qualify for a meal?” We don't do that. The moment you qualify for a meal, it feels like a government program. We want to put ourselves in that single mom's shoes who has to work 50, 60 hours a week to be able to pay rent. If she has multiple children in various schools, after she's done working overtime and then corralling all her kids from various locations, by the time she gets home, the one thing that money can't buy is time. And so, we give space for that.

There's a lot of working-class people receiving our services, just trying to make ends meet. We try to eliminate barriers to access because we want to create a level of dignity because there's a lot of stigma and shame to asking for help, especially if you are working full time and can't make ends meet. 

We want to create a space where mom doesn't feel bad to take her kids to St. John's Bread and Life to have a meal because she knows it will be just as good as a nutrient-dense, healthy meal that she’d prepare for her kids. 

So, what I'm doing here is pulling back that veil and showing people the truth about this notion that we're back to normal, that we've gone back to this pre-COVID normalcy. This is far from the truth.

Rethink Food’s culinary team makes meals it would serve at home.  ©Rethink Food

Another secret to our sauce is our beautiful team. Individuals on our team are either coming from those communities or they have that same compassion. There’s Rebecca, who is the only single mom on our team, or chef Arturo, who leads the culinary team on a day-to-day managerial level. They are parents curating meals like they would for their children. 

We probably have the marquee wage on the market. Those individuals on my team coming from the community, we are empowering them through our partnerships with workforce development programs like Project Renewal and giving them dignity and confidence that come with work. It's a skill set that's affecting other individuals.

But in all that we are doing, we enjoy this amazing environmental upside of collecting viable excess and saving millions of gallons of water on an annual basis. We are [also diverting] tons of CO2. That fleet that we are invested in that goes out and captures all this excess, brings it back here, and then moves our meals [has a carbon footprint]. We will [reduce] our carbon footprint and preserve our natural human habitat just by the work that we're doing feeding people. 

Earth & I: Any last thoughts?

Ken Baker: I often tell people that I grew up food insecure in Baltimore, but it was different. We didn't have much, but we didn't feel like it. There was a lot of love.

My grandmother is why I'm in this space. God rest her soul. The archives of history would never speak about Deborah Jones, but the impact she had on me, how she would always have a kind word for our mailman and would make him a cake or give him a plate of food. There's something very powerful about breaking bread with somebody. It breaks down the barriers of separation.

That resonates with the broader sacrifice we need to have for each other. That's the secret sauce at Rethink Food. We all are centered on our four core values that guide everything that we do. First, our mission is to create a more sustainable and equitable food system, but the core values of the organization are kindness, thoughtfulness, inventiveness, and vulnerability.

That is why we exist.

*By Alina Bradford

Most people have seen a hapless turtle, deer, or skunk trying to scuttle to the other side of a road or highway. As urbanization and infrastructure expansion continue to encroach on natural habitats, man-made wildlife crossings [see video] or “green bridges” have emerged as a vital solution for wildlife.  

These innovative structures help ensure safe passage, thus reducing roadkill and preventing fatal or crippling collisions between animals and vehicles. 

Green bridges also help animals move freely, ensuring they can find food, mates, and new territories. This movement is crucial for keeping wildlife populations healthy and diverse. 

What Are Wildlife Crossings?

Wildlife crossings are special structures designed to help animals safely cross busy roads, highways, and railways. The main goal of wildlife crossings is to reduce the number of wildlife-vehicle collisions, which can be dangerous for both animals and humans.

According to the National Conference of State Legislatures (US), an estimated 1 million to 2 million motorists collide with large wildlife each year. These collisions cause around 200 human deaths, 26,000 injuries, and $8 billion in property damage.

Wildlife crossings can take the form of overpasses, underpasses, bridges, or tunnels. Overpasses often look like natural bridges covered with soil and plants, giving animals a safe path over the road. Underpasses and tunnels that run beneath the road are perfect for smaller animals or those that prefer enclosed spaces. These crossings are often paired with fences to guide animals to the safest routes and keep them off the roads.

Animal bridges aren’t just government initiatives. Conservation groups and organizations work with local governments to devise the best plans for local wildlife. One organization that is a driving force in wildlife crossings in North America is the Pacific Forest Trust. It has been preserving, restoring, and managing forests in the Cascade-Siskiyou region in Oregon for more than two decades.

“Our belief in the importance of wildlife crossings has only grown stronger, especially as climate change pushes species to adapt and find cooler spots to call home,” said Laurie Wayburn, co-founder and president of Pacific Forest Trust. “Take our projects, like additions to the Cascade Siskiyou National Monument, Mountcrest Working Forest, and Mount Ashland Demonstration Forest. They're not just forests, they're lifelines for wildlife, connecting them to other protected areas and giving them safe pathways to migrate.”

How Common Are Wildlife Crossings?

Wildlife bridges started as just an idea in the 1950s in France and have since become increasingly common as countries recognize their benefits for both wildlife conservation and public safety. While exact numbers are hard to determine, there are thousands of wildlife crossings globally, including over 600 green bridges in the Netherlands and over 1,000 in the United States.

One of the most iconic wildlife crossings is the Banff National Park's series of overpasses and underpasses in Alberta, Canada. These vegetation-covered structures blend into the natural landscape and provide safe passage for wolves, grizzly bears, elk, and other species. According to a 2007 research article, the crossings reduced large animal wildlife-vehicle collisions in the area by over 80%.

Another impressive example is Utah's $5 million Parleys Canyon wildlife overpass. Spanning six lanes of Interstate 80, this overpass is specifically designed for large animals like deer and elk. In 2021 alone, the bridge had over 1,200 animal crossings.

In Australia, the Christmas Island crab bridges protect millions of red crabs during their annual migrations. These unique, mesh-like crossings, which allow crabs to easily climb and walk over roads, have become an essential part of the island’s ecosystem management.

Crabs on Christmas Island bridge.  ©Leah Noble (left) Sarah Coote (right). Parks Australia

The Cost of Wildlife Crossings 

While wildlife crossings save lives, they can be quite expensive. Successful wildlife crossings include fencing to funnel animals toward the crossings, signage to alert drivers, and landscaping to make the structures more attractive to wildlife.  

Wildlife crossings vary in size depending on the species they are designed to accommodate. Overpasses are typically 165 to 230 feet wide, providing enough space for animals to feel safe. Underpasses come in various dimensions, but they are generally designed to mimic natural conditions to encourage wildlife use. Generally, overpasses can cost between $1 million and $7 million to construct, while underpasses range from $250,000 to $600,000. 

Research has shown that building these crossings is actually less expensive than the animal and car collisions that happen without them. For example, before the construction of the wildlife crossings, the Wyoming Department of Transportation estimated that wildlife-vehicle collisions at Trapper’s Point, Wyoming, were costing over $500,000 each year. The state estimates that the wildlife crossings—which, for example, cost $2.5 million to $7 million for a double span overpass—will pay for themselves in about 17 years, according to The Center for Large Landscape Conservation in Bozeman, Montana.

Effectiveness of Wildlife Crossings

Wildlife crossings have proven highly effective in reducing animal-vehicle collisions. Studies show an average reduction of 80% to 90% in collisions in areas where these crossings are installed.

The Interstate 5 wildlife crossing in Oregon is a prime example of a successful project from start to finish. “Since 2020, we've been working as part of the Southern Oregon Wildlife Crossing Coalition to champion safe passage for animals across Interstate 5 in the Siskiyou Crest, one of the most heavily traveled roads in the nation and a major ‘kill zone’ for wildlife in both Oregon and California,” said Wayburn. “Wildlife deaths have fallen by nearly 86% in other parts of Oregon where wildlife corridors have been built. That's why we're excited about the Interstate 5 wildlife crossing, as it will foster habitat connectivity and protect elk, deer, mountain lions and many other species, large and small.”

New Developments in Wildlife Crossings

Exciting developments continue in this field. For example, the Pacific Forest Trust is working on creating "wildways," natural corridors that bridge public and private lands. "While man-made wildlife crossings over roads like bridges and tunnels under highways have garnered significant attention, Pacific Forest Trust is at the forefront of a growing movement toward creating natural corridors—we like to call them ‘wildways’—that bridge public and private lands to ensure safe passage for wildlife across property ownerships,” said Wayburn. “This is especially important as wildlife are increasingly on the move due to challenges posed by climate change, such as extreme heat, wildfires, and increased fragmentation from development pressure.”

An example of this approach is a project to conserve  7,500 acres of private forest on Mount Shasta's slopes that involves the landowner, forest management group, the Pacific Forest Trust, and the State of California. This project aims to protect forest health, create a climate-resilient habitat connecting public lands, and support around 250 species, including the gray wolf and Pacific fisher.

“With nearly 60% of US forests being privately owned, replicating such 'super wildway' projects nationwide becomes crucial for reducing fragmentation and facilitating secure wildlife migration amid climate and environmental challenges,” said Wayburn.

Going Beyond Traditional Boundaries

Wildlife crossings are a crucial innovation in preserving biodiversity and enhancing road safety. As more countries and states recognize the value of these lifesaving structures, it is expected that there will be an increase in their number worldwide.

“Our ideas about habitat protection need to evolve from a ‘fixed boundary’ or zoo-like approach that expects animals and plants to remain within designated places,” said Wayburn. “Public lands alone cannot protect these species,” she added. “To ensure we have this amazing diversity of plants and wildlife, we need to embrace private lands, including those managed for financial return, as part of the solution. Since biodiversity loss is closely linked with climate change and forest loss, we must integrate more active, private lands conservation into our strategies.”

*Alina Bradford is a safety and security expert who has contributed to CBS, MTV, USA Today, Reader’s Digest, and more. She is currently the editorial lead at SafeWise.com.

In its tenth annual Global EV Outlook released in April, the International Energy Agency provided an overview of recent developments in electric mobility, including trends in electric vehicles (EVs) and projections of EV charging infrastructure and battery demand. A key finding is that there were about 40 million electric cars on the road in 2023, a 14 million increase from the previous year.  

1. In 2023, global electric car sales (and new car registrations) neared 14 million, having increased by 3.5 million from the previous year. 

2. The most sales were made by China (60%), followed by Europe (25%) and the US (10%). 

3. The global stock of fuel cell electric vehicles reached around 87,600 at the end of 2023, an increase of 15,400 (about 20%) from the previous year. The highest stock is in Korea (almost 40%), followed by the US (about 30%) and China (just over 20%).  

4. The number of available models for electric cars was nearly 590 in 2023, with a 15% year-on-year increase. 

5. The average range of small electric cars and large higher-end models was stagnant, at around 150 km (93 miles) and 360 km to 380 km (223 miles to 236 miles), respectively. 

6. On the other hand, medium-sized electric cars and electric SUVs had improvements in their range, at around 380 km (236 miles). 

7. Sales of electric buses have been decreasing since the peak of nearly 90,000 in 2017 (aside from 2022), with almost 50,000 sold in 2023. 

8. Electric truck sales were about 54,000 in 2023, a 35% increase from the previous year. Seventy percent of these sales were made by China. 

9. Demand for electric vehicle batteries was about 750 gigawatt-hours in 2023, a 40% increase from the previous year. 

10. In 2024, the projected total electric car sales are around 17 million, with over 3 million already sold in the first quarter. 

Sources: 

• https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2024  

Research—and common sense—affirm that the sense of touch plays an important role in human life. Now a new study concludes that there is “clear evidence” that therapeutic touch is beneficial across a large number of physical and mental health conditions and in people of all ages. 

It is well known that babies thrive with loving touch, and that regular, consensual hugs, kisses, and massages contribute to physical health and mental well-being throughout life. However, scientists have sought to understand the mechanics behind the healing powers of touch and how these can be harnessed for greater efficacy across various ailments. 

A group of scientists associated with the Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience conducted a meta-analysis of dozens of studies on touch intervention therapies involving almost 13,000 people. Their study, published in the journal Nature Human Behaviour, found that touch interventions have a “medium-sized effect” on people’s ailments. 

The studies all included “a touch versus no touch control intervention,” the authors said.  

They found that “touch treatments” were particularly effective with regulating cortisol levels; increasing newborns’ weight; and reducing pain, depression, and anxiety in adults. 

The scientists also looked at personal versus impersonal interventions. They found that touch interventions with “objects or robots” brought similar physical health benefits to skin-to-skin interventions. However, skin-to-skin interventions brought greater mental health benefits than other types of interventions. 

Regarding who was providing the touching, the meta-analysis found no difference in health benefits for adults when touch interventions were administered by a “familiar person” versus a health care professional. However, among newborns, parental touch was by far the most beneficial. 

The team further found that more touch interventions were positively associated with improved outcomes for depression, anxiety, and pain reduction in adults.  

The magnitude of their data, the scientists said, supported their conclusion that “touch interventions can be systematically employed across the population to preserve and improve our health.” 

Source: 

• https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-024-01841-8  

The global shutdowns during the COVID-19 pandemic generated at least one healthy activity: They pushed more people to plant community vegetable, fruit, and flower gardens, especially in urban areas.

The time-honored activity of communal gardens and farms has long spared communities from hunger during war, natural disasters, and economic downturns. But will this trend grow?

Some see a bright future for community gardens. “Community gardens in the U.S. are growing faster than ever,” the nonprofit Trust for Public Land said in a pre-pandemic post in 2018. “The number of garden plots in city parks has increased 44% since we started keeping track in 2012. Today there are more than 29,000 garden plots in city parks in just the 100 largest U.S. cities—up 22% from just a year ago.”

More recently, a 2024 study, based on responses from 70 community garden coordinators in 43 cities in multiple countries, found that community gardening offered “multiple social, economic, and health benefits” during the COVID-19 years.

The study’s Swiss and German authors, who published their findings in January in Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, cautioned that while the pandemic sparked a clear surge in shared-space gardening, “it remains unclear how it affected the overall trend in demand for community gardens.”

However, they concluded that the rise in community gardening between 2018 and 2022 “underscores the crucial role of community gardens in an urbanizing world, especially during challenging times.” Therefore, “[i]t is essential for urban planners to prioritize meeting this increasing demand [for community gardens] as part of their efforts to make cities more sustainable,” the researchers wrote.

The ‘Lowly Potato’ Staved Off Hunger

Community gardens in the US and UK have been around for around 130 years when government programs were created to help feed people.

A notable American episode happened in the 1890s during a national economic downturn. In Michigan, Detroit Mayor Hazen “Ping” Pingree was faced with a huge unemployed and hungry population. He asked for public approval “to use vacant land–much of it held speculatively–for gardens and potato patches,” according to an article in HistoricDetroit.org. The response was huge; applications for garden plots poured in, and people began planting vegetables, especially the “lowly potato,” the Free Press wrote in October 1935. “Pingree's potato patches broke the back of hunger,” the newspaper said, adding that the communal strategy was “nationally acclaimed and copied” in other cities.

A Smithsonian Community of Gardens article, “Pingree’s Potato Patches,” gave more details: “In 1894, 975 families raised $14,000 worth of crops on 430 acres of land. By 1897, the program in Detroit reached its peak, with 1563 families participating, before tapering off by 1901 as economic conditions improved.”

Famed Wartime ‘Victory Gardens’

During World War II, the legendary “Dig for Victory”  gardens in the UK were matched by American Victory Gardens—some 18 million gardens were planted in US cities and farmlands, according to the May 1943 issue of Popular Mechanics.  These patriotic gardens freed up agricultural produce and transportation resources for the war effort and helped offset shortages of agricultural workers and food supplies at home.

In 1979, the grassroots, non-profit advocacy group, American Community Gardening Association, began its mission of expanding community gardens. Today, it says it has over 1,000 individual and 252 organizational members, and links 2,100 gardens across Canada and the US, “ranging from family allotments to tiny pollinator pocket parks, and from school gardens to urban farms.”

The US’ Largest Community Garden

Shiloh Field Community Garden (SFCG), a 14.5-acre garden in Denton County, Texas, describes itself as the largest community garden in the United States. The late Gene Gumfory started it in 2009, with a commitment to feeding farm produce to the hungry, including fresh fruit, and eggs.

Nancy DiMarco, Shiloh Field’s volunteer coordinator and project manager, explained: “Shiloh is primarily a [volunteer] working farm with about 15 acres. We do have about 55 community plots that are 15 feet by 15 feet that anyone from Denton can rent for a year at no cost, as long as they are maintained. They make up a fraction of the area that is in production, though.”

Training is included, although, according to Amy Proctor, a SFCG Board member, Shiloh does not have “a set training program.” Community gardening volunteers “learn the specific task they will work on that day. … We have had some groups from corporations come out and work. They seemed to love the tasks we had them do, and all had to work together as a group to complete [them],” she said.

DiMarco added, “Community gardens are all about teamwork, as we’re completely volunteer driven. … We have had nearly 6,000 volunteers. … We focus on providing food to those who don’t have access. … Typically, those who receive the food don’t volunteer to work at Shiloh. All volunteers … care deeply about serving.

“We partner with about 20 different food banks and kitchens throughout Denton County who feed people who need access to fresh vegetables and fruits. Once our produce is harvested, it is delivered to agencies like Our Daily Bread, Salvation Army, Cumberland Children’s Home, Freedom Food Pantry, to name a few.”

Shiloh Field is an example of the many benefits of community gardening, like reducing food insecurity in the local community, fostering human collaboration, and having an “outdoor classroom” to learn about many aspects of gardening.

A small, community-based participatory research study by academics with the Oregon Health & Science University in Portland found evidence that community gardens made a substantial difference in the lives of families.

Before the 2009 gardening season began, researchers asked 38 families, representing 163 people, about their food concerns. They found that 31.2% of families were worried they would not have enough money for food.

After the gardening season, the households were polled again, and the number of households with food security concerns dropped to 3.1%—a 90% decline, said the 2012 study published in the Journal of Community Health. “A community gardening program can reduce food insecurity, improve dietary intake and strengthen family relationships,” the Oregon researchers concluded.

A Communal Farm in San Francisco

At 3.5 acres, Alemany Farm is San Francisco’s largest urban farm. It is organized as a communal production farm, managed by paid staff and community volunteers, with the purpose of providing community members with free food, opportunities to volunteer, and participate in hands-on education.

Alfredo Hernández, executive director of the Friends of Alemany Farm, points out the differences between a communal farm and a community garden: “We are an open harvest farm, not a community garden. Volunteers work Monday and Saturdays.” Communal farms produce more food than community gardens, promoting even more food security.

“We bring in teams of folks as apprentices to flip beds of lettuce or other produce. We have a food pantry that we deliver to weekly. We also donate to free farm stands. We give [annually] 13 tons of food all for free. This huge farm is run by volunteers and a handful of paid employees on government grants and corporate donations.”

Experienced Alemany Farm volunteers teach other volunteers as they work. Volunteers are invited to take fresh produce home with them. Interns who work alongside Alemany Farm managers help in all aspects of growing food and maintaining the 3.5-acre organic farm.

The farm offers workshops, internships, and team-building opportunities for corporate groups.

On the East Coast, the District of Columbia’s Department of Parks and Recreation has community gardens, communal farms, and non-profit partner urban farms.

Joshua Singer, a farm manager for the DC Communal Farm program, explained some of the differences: “Community gardens have individual plots… Sometimes you can’t get a plot, or you have to be on a waiting list for a long time.” In contrast, he said, “Communal farms have no waiting list. We offer classes and produce. During the [COVID-19] pandemic, the [DC] mayor deemed them essential. … The volunteers grow produce and do as much as possible.”

“Then we have non-profit farms,” Singer said. “They’re run by non-profits. We give them the [city] land and they run them for free.”

An example in Southeast District is the Virginia Avenue Community Garden (VACG). It is a community garden with individual plots that opened in 2004 to serve local families. Gardeners grow everything from organic produce to flowers. VACG garden manager Kimberly Hahn estimated that 88 garden plots “provide food to at least twice as many people, as plots are often worked by couples, friends, and families with children.”

In addition to the benefits of their own plots, gardeners must help maintain the common land. All VACG gardeners “are required to attend two community cleanup days where they learn about and help maintain shared resources like compost bins or blackberry brambles.”

VACG gardeners planted and maintain over 15 fruit trees, all along the garden’s fence so that the surrounding community can pick fruit from outside of the garden. Excess fruits and vegetables have been provided to community organizations, such as SOME (So Others Might Eat) and to the homeless; and funds have been raised by the garden members and donated to SOME on an annual basis. The garden has made plots available to schools, scouts, and other organizations, without charge, and VACG members have taught classes on gardening and assisted in starting gardens at various schools.

Hahn explained that “[m]embers join with a range of gardening experience. Instead of classes, education on gardening and maintaining the common areas takes place informally.” Gardeners get educated about “the nuts and bolts—where and when to plant, how to address a particular problem—[it] happens mainly through individual conversations between gardeners.”

“Gardeners can also join teams that focus on certain areas to learn more about them. For example, they’ll learn about native pollinator plants on the east flower garden team, or how to keep soil acidic on the blueberry patch team.”

Benefits Beyond Food

Research on community gardens has found additional benefits that are not solely food related.

For instance, community gardens contribute to the beauty of a neighborhood, and research shows that they reduce littering, and overall crime.

Gardening has been shown to aid mental and physical health, decreasing feelings of isolation and boosting self-esteem. Community gardens offer space for people to connect and to work together.

Finally, community gardens help restore ecosystems. Gardens add green space, reduce storm water runoff, and provide habitat for pollinators and other wildlife. Improved soil quality from gardens increases plant biodiversity and improves water filtration.

The number of community gardens and farms is expected to increase in the next few years putting a dent in the issue of food insecurity and helping to turn food deserts into food oases.

*Laurie Burras is a former news editor for an international academic magazine. She studied at the Graduate School of Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania and currently resides in Philadelphia.

Rare earth minerals are essential for modern devices, such as computers, cell phones, and wind turbines, but there is growing concern about the environmental pollution and human health risks associated with mining these minerals.  

There are currently recycling practices to collect rare earth materials from electronic waste, but these separation methods are costly and time-consuming.  

A breakthrough technology may be at hand. As recently reported, the US Department of Energy’s Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) announced that researchers have developed a new way to separate critical rare earth minerals from e-waste.  

PNNL material separation scientists Qingpu Wang, Chinmayee Subban, and Elias Nakouzi presented their findings at the 2024 Materials Research Society (MRS) Spring Meeting on April 25, 2024, in Seattle. In their MRS presentation abstract, the scientists said their process showed “great potential” for “urban mining,” a term for the process of capturing critical minerals from e-waste sites. Advances in urban mining could both boost e-waste recycling and reduce the need for conventional rare earth mineral mining. 

In their abstract, the trio added that using their e-waste technology would require “a paradigm shift” from current practices. 

According to Science Daily, the PNNL team has already succeeded in “selectively recovering manganese, magnesium, dysprosium, and neodymium,” each being critically important to the electronics industry.  

The team’s novel method exploits the different reactions of various metals to being submerged in a chemical reaction chamber with two different liquids continuously flowing through it. In their model, metals form solids “at different rates over time,” allowing for them to be separated and purified for reuse.  

Describing their process in the journal RSC Sustainability, the team said, “Simply by placing a mixed salt solution on top of a hydrogel loaded with a precipitating agent, we obtained spatially separated precipitates [minerals] along the reactor.”  

This one-step process, they said, is expected to be broadly adaptable to material separation from complex waste streams with diverse chemistries, thus "enabling more sustainable materials extraction and processing” in the future. 

Sources: 

• https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2024/su/d3su00403a 

• https://www.pnnl.gov/news-media/critical-minerals-recovery-electronic-waste 

• https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2024/04/240423184756.htm 

• https://www.mrs.org/meetings-events/spring-meetings-exhibits/2024-mrs-spring-meeting/symposium-sessions/presentations/detail/2024_mrs_spring_meeting/2024_mrs_spring_meeting-4009789 

*By Rick Laezman 

The growth of renewable energy is not only reshaping the way society consumes power, it is disrupting conventional thinking in the energy industry on many levels, including storage, grid management, and distribution. 

A sea change in the method of long-distance power transmissions is one example. Traditionally, transmission of electric power has been performed by high voltage lines carrying alternating current or HVAC (High Voltage Alternating Current). Increasingly, that role is being usurped by lines carrying high voltage direct current, or HVDC (High Voltage Direct Current), because of their superior ability to transmit power generated by renewables. 

This shift has been so significant that many in the energy industry believe a large-scale conversion to an HVDC transmission grid is essential. Fully assessing the strengths and weaknesses of HVDC and taking the necessary steps to properly expand its use is likely to become a strategic imperative in the fight against climate change. 

What is High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC)? 

Electricity, invisible to the human eye, is a fascinating and mysterious phenomenon. On a very basic level, it is typically perceived as tiny electrons, like little balls of energy, travelling along wires to form a current that turns on homes’ lights and powers household appliances.  

But the concept gets more complex. There are two very different forms of electrical current. A current can flow in one direction from the source (power plant) to the receptor (device or appliance). It flows through and out of that receptor, returning to the source again—always in the same direction in a continuous circular movement. This is referred to as direct current or DC. 

Somewhat counterintuitively, electricity may also flow in a back-and-forth motion, or alternating current, also known as AC. This flow travels from the source to the receptor, and back, also on a loop. But instead of always travelling the loop in one direction, it switches its direction once it completes one round and then travels in the opposite direction in the loop repeatedly and rapidly, back and forth, constantly alternating its direction. A device or appliance harnesses the energy from that current by connecting to and drawing power from the back-and-forth motion on the receiving end. 

What does all this have to do with renewable energy and high voltage transmission lines? 

When the nation's electric transmission infrastructure was first being built, DC power systems were more expensive and more complex to install. Consequently, AC became the predominant and standardized form of high voltage transmission, and most power from utilities is currently transmitted over HVAC lines. 

However, because of the rapidly expanding capacity of renewable energy, the role and the value of HVDC is also rapidly expanding. With advanced technology, HVDC is increasingly recognized as superior to transmit renewable energy over long distances, and many see it as an indispensable tool for meeting the larger goal of bringing sufficient supply of renewable power online to meet carbon reduction goals. 

According to the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), HVDC is more efficient and less expensive at long distances and can connect asynchronous systems or grids that operate on different frequencies. The reasons for this can be found in the distinct and unique characteristics of AC and DC power. 

Disadvantages of High Voltage Alternate Current (HVAC)

The alternating nature of AC creates phenomena that do not exist in DC power. For example, the back-and-forth motion of alternating current generates a type of energy called reactive power. It is an essential element of AC current, although it is not part of the power that is consumed by appliances and devices on the receiving end.  

This reactive power leads to losses of power in an AC system and causes it to not travel well over long distances. Reactive power in HVAC lines also creates a magnetic field between the lines and the ground below. This magnetic field, or capacitance, also contributes to a loss of power, which is referred to as capacitance line loss.  

In addition, AC current creates a so-called corona discharge, which involves the casting off of electrons into the air surrounding a conducting wire (audible sometimes along overhead long-distance HVAC lines as a humming sound). This also leads to power loss. And finally, AC is affected by the so-called “skin effect,” in which power travels only at or near the surface of a conducting wire. 

Consequently, HVAC lines require larger, bundled lines to compensate for the loss of power. These larger, thicker wires also add to the cost. Moreover, HVAC lines are typically installed high above ground to minimize capacitance line loss, although this leaves the lines vulnerable to outages caused by high winds. 

Advantages of HVDC 

In contrast, reactive power and the skin effect do not occur in DC, and the corona discharge is much less significant. HVDC lines also do not need to be installed high above ground because they do not experience capacitance. 

All these factors make HVDC transmission lines more efficient, less expensive, and able to carry more energy over longer distances than their AC counterpart. 

Because DC power does not operate on a frequency, it can connect multiple asynchronous power systems without disrupting the frequency of either one.  

The DOE notes that the US power grid is divided into three such AC systems: the Eastern interconnection, the Western interconnection, and the Texas interconnection. Transferring power between these grid regions without disrupting the frequency of either system is only possible with direct current (DC) links. 

HVDC and Green Power

All HVDC’s advantages make it ideally suited to transmit power generated by renewable energy sources. Most renewables, such as utility-scale solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal, generate power in remote locations that are far removed from populated areas and thus have the greatest need for power. These generating sites require sufficient transmission infrastructure to carry power over long distances—and over large bodies of water and land masses—to meet the targeted consumer demand.

The nation's existing transmission infrastructure is insufficient to meet this challenge. In some cases, adequate infrastructure does not exist near renewable generating sites and needs to be built from scratch. In other situations, existing HVAC lines are not up to the task, so they need to be replaced or upgraded.

HVDC transmission technology has improved over the years, and the costs have been greatly reduced. It is now widely recognized as the superior technology to get more renewable energy capacity to the grid where it can meet consumer demand and help cut carbon emissions.

Because HVDC does not experience capacitance line loss, transmission lines can be installed underground and even under the water, dramatically reducing the cost of their installation and making the renewable generating sites feasible and cost-effective.

HVDC Installations Around the Globe

Developers recognize these advantages, and projects are underway across the globe. Some have been completed and are operational. One such project was an international collaboration: NordLink was developed jointly by Norwegian power company Statnett, Norwegian and German grid company TenneT, and German investment bank KfW.

The NordLink transmission line travels over 623 kilometers (about 387 miles) between a hydropower facility in Tonstad, Norway, to wind power facilities in Wilster/Nortorf, Germany. Most of the transmission line, about 516 kilometers (320 miles), travels under the North Sea.

The project, which became operational in 2021, creates a unique and vital link between the two countries. It has the capacity to transmit 1,400 MW (megawatts) of renewable energy, enough to power about 3.6 million households.

Perhaps more importantly, it can transmit power both ways. The transmission line consists of a double cable made of positively and negatively poled cables. With this setup, NordLink can transmit power from the Norwegian hydropower station to Germany or from the German wind farms to Norway, according to supply and demand. This allows the Norwegian hydroplant to act as a sort of battery that stores power for the wind farm that can be discharged when the wind is not blowing. It also allows both countries to dramatically increase their access to renewable power sources.

Another project, the Champlain Hudson Power Express® (CHPE), will deliver 1,250 MW of clean power to more than a million homes in New York City. Renewable energy generated by existing hydropower facilities in Canada will travel over nearly 340 miles of HVDC transmission cables that will be installed along the route.

When completed, the lines will run along waterways, roads, and railroad rights-of-way to achieve the most direct route and minimize visibility. They will also run underground and underwater, through Lake Champlain, and along and under the Hudson River.

This $6 billion project will help New York meet its clean energy goals. The city has been striving to increase its access to renewable energy ever since the nearby Indian Point nuclear power plant was retired in 2021.

The CHPE project owner, Transmission Developers, says the project will have many benefits. Environmentally, the project will help New York City access cleaner renewable power. In doing so, it will reduce carbon emissions and displace fossil fuels. Economically, the project will help lower electricity costs for consumers, as well as increase jobs, economic activity, and tax revenues for the region it serves.

The project is not without critics. Opponents argue that the route may harm local fish populations and Native American communities.

The Future of HVDC

Many more HVDC transmission projects have been completed or are underway, and future expansion is expected worldwide. However, HVDC does have its disadvantages. The most significant of these is high capital costs caused by the need to invest in expensive converter stations that transform AC power to DC before it can be transmitted.

For this reason, HVDC is only cost-effective for distances that exceed certain break-even points, such as more than 60 km (or 37 miles) for lines underwater and 200 km (or 124 miles) for overhead lines. It’s at these points that the advantages of HVDC outweigh its costs.

As the DOE notes, transitioning from AC systems will require “adjustments to grid planning standards and modeling techniques to adequately plan for the technical differences of HVDC systems.”

Nevertheless, the benefits of HVDC and its potential role in helping the world transition to more green power generation cannot be overlooked. Developers recognize this and appear to have embraced the technology. The market research firm DNV projects at least 46 new HVDC projects to be installed around the world over the next decade, equating to a 94.3 GW addition of HVDC transmission capacity and at least 18,000 km (close to 11,200 miles) of HVDC cable.

The American Council on Renewable Energy (ACRE)  asserts that the US is “lagging behind” in the deployment of enough HVDC lines to meet increased demand. It argues that a combination of misconceptions, lack of standards, supply chain challenges, and regulatory hurdles combine to impede progress. It recommends collaboration among grid planning authorities, transmission owners, equipment manufacturers, industry groups, the DOE, and others to address these challenges and remove barriers so that the industry can properly expand.

*Rick Laezman is a freelance writer in Los Angeles, California, US. He has a passion for energy efficiency and innovation. He has covered renewable power and other related subjects for over ten years.

In its third edition of the World Wildlife Crime Report, which covers data from 2015 to 2021, the UN Office on Drugs and Crime provided an overview of government seizures of illicitly trafficked plants and animals and associated criminal activities. A key finding is that over 40% of 1,652 animal species seized are classified as “threatened” or “near threatened.” 

1. Of the over 4,000 total plant and animal species recorded in the seizures, 1,652 of them were mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. 

1. Over 40% of the 1,652 species were classified as “threatened” or “near threatened” according to the IUCN Red List, including birds (206 out of 751), mammals (231 out of 444), reptiles (190 out of 405), and amphibians (23 out of 52).  

1. Mammals had the highest percentage of being subjected to intentional harvest (73% of 444), followed by amphibians (62% of 52), reptiles (59% of 405), and birds (31% of 751). 

1. Some 83 species out of the 1,255 live species (mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians) seized were listed as invasives. 

1. The top three animal species affected by illegal wildlife trade based on standardized seizure index are rhinoceros (29%), pangolins (28%), and elephants (15%). For plant species, the top three are cedars and other Sapindales (47%), rosewoods (35%), and agarwood and other Myrtales (13%). 

1. Corals and “others” had the highest percentage shares of seizure records, both at 16%. This is followed by crocodilians (9%) and elephants (6%). 

1. The shipping origin of most seizure records (56%) was unspecified or unknown. This is followed by Sub-Saharan Africa (19%) and South Asia (9%). 

1. Top individual commodities by percentage of seizure records were coral pieces (16%), live specimens (15%), and medicines (10%). 

1. Global cocaine seizures have been increasing from 901 tons in 2015 to 2,098 tons in 2021. 

1. Methamphetamine seizures in East and Southeast Asia have almost tripled from 64 tons in 2015 to 172 tons in 2021, although it decreased by 1 ton from 2020. 

Sources: 

• https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/wildlife/2024/Wildlife2024_Final.pdf  

• https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/wildlife.html  

*By Robin Whitlock

The global electric vehicle (EV) industry boomed last year, spurring demand for more than 750 gigawatt hours (GWh) of battery output, with EVs accounting for 95% of that growth.

This has led to more mining of lithium, cobalt, nickel, and other minerals to feed the battery production sector. Global demand for batteries is expected to grow 30% annually, reaching 4,500 GWh a year by 2030, according to global management consulting firm McKinsey & Co.

However, the fate of the lithium-ion batteries (LIB) that currently power the EV industry remains a compelling topic. The batteries are estimated to last eight years or 100,000 miles and then die, after which they are most often destined for landfills or incineration.

Recycling LIBs has not yet caught on—in 2019, only 5% of LIBs were recycled, according to Chemical & Engineering News.

As a result, “[b]illions of dead lithium-ion batteries, including many from electric vehicles, are accumulating because there is no cost-effective process to revive them,” said a writer from Princeton University’s Andlinger Center for Energy and the Environment in 2022.

Helping consumers recycle these devices is an environmental priority.  

“Recycling used lithium-ion batteries (and the devices that contain them) will help address emerging issues associated with the clean energy transition and prevent problems caused by inappropriate battery disposal,” said the US Environmental Protection Agency.

Earlier this year, the Biden Administration announced $62 million to support 17 projects “to increase consumer participation in consumer electronics battery recycling and improve the economics of battery recycling.”

“Capturing the full battery supply chain—from sourcing critical materials to manufacturing to recycling—puts the U.S. in the driver’s seat as we build our clean energy economy,” U.S. Secretary of Energy Jennifer M. Granholm said as part of the White House’s announcement in March.

Among the advantages of LIBs are their usable cycle life, extended cycle life, fast charging speed, and high energy efficiency. These make them suitable for a wide range of consumer electronic applications such as EVs, energy storage, laptop computers, mobile devices, medical devices, smart watches, and drones.

Fire Risk

Although EVs are significantly less likely to catch fire than gasoline-powered vehicles, there are alarming reports, especially via social media, about sudden and spontaneous combustion of EVs. At the heart of this phenomenon is something called “thermal runaway”—a chain of exothermic (heat-releasing) reactions, increase in reaction rate, and increased heat for more exothermic reactions, forming a positive feedback loop. If LIBs are damaged or overcharged, they may overheat and catch fire via thermal runaway. These fires can also generate emissions of toxic fluoride gases, particularly hydrogen fluoride (a hazardous gas) and phosphoryl fluoride.

To enhance safety, LIB manufacturers incorporate at least two safety devices into the batteries—a current interrupt device (CID) and a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) device. The electric resistance of the PTC device rises sharply when the temperature rises. This increased resistance reduces the rate of current flowing through the battery. A 2021 study in the Journal of Energy Chemistry said enhancements in cooling and cell balance were among the many strategies to improve LIB safety.

Production Issues

There are various concerns around the production of LIBs, including sourcing of lithium from salt flats in South America, energy intensive production in China and Australia, and cobalt mining in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). The US was the largest miner of lithium in the 1990s, but it was overtaken by Chile in 2010, making Chile one of the current top three global extractors of lithium alongside China and Australia.

Lithium extraction poses additional problems: It requires excessive water consumption in arid areas. It can be fatal to marine life when it becomes a source of water pollution, and byproducts of lithium extraction can include large amounts of magnesium and lime waste.

Another core EV battery component—cobalt—may even be turned into a so-called conflict mineral.

“Although cobalt has so far not been included in supply chain legislation among the raw materials defined as ‘conflict minerals,’ such as tin, tantalum, tungsten and gold, it has attracted attention,” Prof. Jana Hönke and Lisa Skender said in a 2022 blog post reprinted by Infraglob website.

“Due to the surging global demand for cobalt, there are increasing reports of poor working conditions, child labor and exploitation in cobalt mines in the Democratic Republic of Congo,” they wrote. “As a solution to increase the enforceability of human rights in the context of an ‘ethical’ cobalt trade is being discussed.”

Currently, only the aforementioned minerals, known as 3TGs, are considered by the European Union to be mined using forced labor or used to finance armed conflict. But there is fresh concern about the armed forces in DRC and their massive cobalt mining operations. Moreover, China controls seven of DRC’s largest mines, raising concerns about a monopoly on the precious metal.

End-of-life and Recycling Issues

Car manufacturers, such as Nissan and Tesla, estimate that the lifespan of LIBs will be eight years or 100,000 miles,  Tobias Walker wrote on AZOCleanTech website.

However, he wrote, “[u]sing today’s methods, reusing batteries for another five to seven years offers a cleaner environmental solution. For example, using second-life batteries could reduce the gross energy demand and global warming potential by up to 70%.”

This is because end-of-life LIBs are a resource of highly enriched materials that can be recovered and reused, reducing the need for exploration and mining.

Recycling LIBs could also reduce the amount of devices that area sent to landfills. This in turn could reduce metals, such as cobalt, nickel, manganese, and others, from leaking into the soil and polluting groundwater. Furthermore, recycling LIBs could reduce raw material imports from countries with armed conflict, illegal mining, human rights abuses, and harmful environmental practices.

Meanwhile, fluctuations in the prices of battery raw materials can adversely affect the economics of recycling LIBs. This is especially true for cobalt, the price of which fell drastically in 2019, thereby incentivizing manufacturers to choose newly mined materials over recycled materials.

These challenges have encouraged a search for alternatives, such as non-lithium-based battery chemistries like iron-air batteries and sodium-ion batteries. Other research topics are on improved mineral efficiency and increases in energy density, improved safety, cost reduction, and increases in charging speed. There are also attempts to produce LIBs with reduced flammability and volatility using aqueous lithium-ion batteries, ceramic solid electrolytes, polymer electrolytes, ionic liquids, and heavily fluorinated systems.

‘Black Mass’

Some LIB components—iron, copper, nickel, and cobalt, for example—are safe for incineration and in landfills, but they can also be recycled. Cobalt is the most expensive, and thus its recovery is a major focus of recycling.

Recycling of LIBs involves numerous stages, including collection, evaluation, disassembling, and separation of components. The batteries are very often shredded. This process creates “black mass,” or granular material from the shredded cathodes and anodes, along with copper and aluminum foils, separators (thin plastic), steel canisters, and electrolyte.

Black mass can be recycled further and made into material for new cathodes and anodes. It is often sent to another facility where the valuable metals within it, such as cobalt, nickel, and lithium, are recovered.

The most commonly used approach is pyrometallurgy, a smelting process that utilizes a high-temperature furnace to reduce the components of the metal oxides to an alloy which can then be separated into its various components by hydrometallurgy. The remaining slag can be reused in the concrete industry.

Pyrometallurgy furnaces operate at temperatures approaching 1,500°C (2,700°F) to recover cobalt, nickel, and copper, but they cannot recover lithium, aluminum, or the various organic compounds that are burned in the process. These plants also operate at a high capital cost because of the need to treat the toxic fluorine compounds that are emitted during the smelting process.

The second process, hydrometallurgy is a less expensive and less energy-intensive leaching process using strong acids to recover lithium and other metals (recovered by pyrometallurgy) at temperatures below 100°C (212°F). However, it requires the use of caustic materials such as hydrochloric, nitric, and sulfuric acids and hydrogen peroxide.

Currently, researchers are experimenting with a third, direct recycling process, called “cathode-to-cathode” recycling, in which energy is saved by preserving the cathode structure, thereby reducing the amount of manufacturing needed in further recycling.

Lithium-Ion Battery Reuse and Recycling Companies

Canadian LIB recovery company Li-Cycle managed to produce 6,825 tons of black mass and related material in 2023. The company operates a two-step process in which LIBs are shredded without the need for dismantling or discharging, and processed with minimal solid and liquid waste, zero combustion risk, zero discharge of wastewater and reduced emissions into the atmosphere.

In Massachusetts, Ascend Elements focuses on the production of cathodes from discarded batteries and manufacturing scrap using their Hydro-to-Cathode process. This delivers precursor and finished cathode materials that can subsequently be used by other manufacturers for LIB production.

Redwood Materials, founded by Tesla co-founder JB Straubel, recovers metals from batteries and produces anodes and cathodes for electric vehicles. The company is developing a complete closed-loop, domestic supply chain for LIBs, including collection, refurbishment, recycling, refining, and remanufacturing of battery materials. It claims 95% recovery of key battery materials and aims to produce enough anode and cathode for 1 million electric vehicles annually by 2025. The company’s hydrometallurgy facility was the first commercial-scale nickel production plant to open in the US for a decade and is the only commercial-scale source of lithium supply to come online in the US in decades. While traditional mining projects often take more than 10 years to become operational, Redwood took around two years to build and activate its facility.

Opportunity for Higher Efficiency and Sustainability in the Years Ahead

Given that the global market for battery recycling is expected to reach $13 billion by 2030, there is an increasing opportunity to grow the battery supply chain. The recycling market is currently dominated by China and South Korea while in other countries, particularly in the West, expansion of the market will depend on the provision of subsidies and on government regulation. Manufacturers outside of Asia have decided that entry into this market is not currently feasible. In order to change that perception, governments will have to ramp up technology and investment opportunities in order to remain competitive with China and South Korea in a range of electronics sectors, particularly electric vehicles.

Meanwhile, in addition to its March 2024 announcement, the US Energy Department has already pledged to spend more than $192 million in new funding for recycling batteries, according to Industry EMEA, a website that curates news for international engineers. The Energy Department is also launching an advanced battery research and development (R&D) consortium and continuing the Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Prize. This supports the Biden Administration’s goal to achieve a US net-zero carbon economy by 2050.

Another boon to LIB recycling industries are studies showing that batteries manufactured from recycled materials are even more efficient than those utilizing newly mined materials. The promise of improved EV charging and longer-lasting batteries will help develop a more sustainable and efficient global clean energy system in the years ahead.

*Robin Whitlock is an England-based freelance journalist specializing in environmental issues, climate change, and renewable energy, with a variety of other professional interests, including green transportation.

In its second annual Global Critical Minerals Outlook, released in May, the International Energy Agency reviewed rising demands of critical metals, such as copper, lithium, nickel, cobalt, graphite, and rare earth elements. These demands are fueled in part by the deployment of clean energy strategies to limit global warming to 1.5 °C (2.8 °F) under the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario (NZE Scenario) and the APS (Announced Pledges Scenario). A key finding is that demands for critical energy transition metals need to increase by 1.5 to 8.7 times to meet NZE Scenario targets.  

1. Demand for key energy transition metals continued to rise in 2023 from 2021, with copper at 25,855 kilotons (kt) from 24,928 kt, lithium at 168 kt from 101 kt, nickel at 3,104 kt from 2,759 kt, cobalt at 215 kt from 181 kt, graphite at 4,632 kt from 3,920 kt, and rare earth metals* at 93 kt from 78 kt. 

2. Demand growth expanded in 2023 from the previous year, with lithium at the highest with about 30%. Nickel, cobalt, graphite, and rare earth elements expanded by 8% to 15%. 

3. However, dramatic price increases for metals seen in 2021-2022 fell sharply in 2023. This led to a 10% contraction in the market size for energy transition minerals and brought the aggregate market value of these minerals to $325 billion. The slowing growth of electric vehicle battery sales, coupled with China’s expansion of battery plants, added to the pressure. 

4. The world’s top metal producers remained the same: Chile has the most copper (5,311 out of 22,508 kt, or 23.5%), Australia has the most lithium (84 out of 194 kt, or 43.2%), Indonesia has the most nickel (1,787 out of 3,451 kt, or 51.7%), the Democratic Republic of the Congo has the most cobalt (157 out of 240 kt, or 65.4%), and China has the most natural graphite (1,320 out of 1,617 kt, or 81.6%) and rare earth metals (47 out of 75 kt, or 62.6%). 

5. In the NZE Scenario, demand for key energy transition metals needs to grow by 1.5 to 8.7 times from 2023 to 2040, with certain percentages set aside for clean energy. Copper needs to grow by 1.5 times to nearly 40,000 kt (50%), lithium by 8.7 times to about 1,400 kt (91%), nickel by 2.1 times to about 6,500 kt (56%), cobalt by 2.2 times to about 470 kt (59%), graphite by 3.9 times to about 18,000 kt (63%), and rare earth metals by 1.8 times to about 160 kt (41%). 

6. Under the APS in the same time frame, copper needs to reach 36,378 kt (with 16,343 kt or 44.9% for clean energy), lithium needs to reach 1,326 kt (with 1,203 kt or 90.7% for clean energy), nickel needs to reach 6,238 kt (with 3,381 kt or 54.2% for clean energy), cobalt needs to reach 454 kt (with 260 kt or 57.2% for clean energy), graphite needs to reach 16,023 kt (with 9,839 kt or 61.4% for clean energy), and rare earth metals need to reach 169 kt (with 64 kt or 37.8% for clean energy). 

*In this report, rare earth elements also include neodymium, praseodymium, dysprosium, and terbium. 

Source: 

• https://origin.iea.org/reports/global-critical-minerals-outlook-2024  

Seagrass is a somewhat mysterious plant, but it is essential for a healthy marine environment. Seagrass can play an important role in capturing carbon, purifying water, and promoting biodiversity.

Although estimated to cover up to 267,000 square kilometers (about 65.9 million acres) across the world, the exact extent is not fully understood, because large areas have not been mapped. What is known is that the plant can be found across 163 countries and territories, and there are 70 species, with the greatest diversity found in the Indo-Pacific Ocean.

Project Seagrass, a charity based in the UK, is on a mission to fill in the knowledge gaps. It carries out scientific research to discover more about this valuable ecosystem while promoting seagrass conservation and restoration efforts around the world.

What is Seagrass?

Unlike seaweed, seagrasses have long blade-like leaves as well as roots, shoots, and flowers, creating dense underwater meadows in shallow, sheltered coastal areas. They grow on soft sediments like sand and rely on roots and rhizomes to keep them in place, notes the University of Western Australia.

According to the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, the oldest known seagrass species— which could be up to 200,000 years old—is a “clone” of the Mediterranean Posidonia oceanica. The Thalassia testudinum, found in the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, attracts amphipods and marine worms, which feed on its pollen. Further afield in Japan, the tallest seagrass species Zostera caulescens can grow up to 35 feet. 

Biodiversity and Healthy Fish Stocks

Project Seagrass reveals that the plant plays an important role in supporting 20% of the world’s largest commercial fisheries, and communities around the globe depend on the fish found in its meadows. A whole host of marine species thrive in these areas—everything from shellfish and seahorses to sea turtles and manatees.

A study undertaken by scientists, including Leanne Cullen-Unsworth, Ben Jones, and Richard Unsworth, who lead Project Seagrass, showed seagrass meadows were increasingly being used as fishing habitat across Cambodia, Tanzania, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia.

Ben Jones said: “Seagrass was the most common habitat used for fishing. Nearly half of all households we talked to preferred fishing in seagrass over other habitats, such as coral, mangroves, open ocean, mud, and rock, for example. This was surprising because most people think of reef fisheries as the key tropical small-scale fishery, but we show that it’s actually engagement in seagrass fisheries that are much more characteristic of households.”

The research also found that 3 in 20 people across the region relied solely on seagrass meadows to provide them with their fishing ground. Coastal communities’ livelihoods are secured because of the reliability of fish stocks and invertebrates in seagrass meadows.

Meanwhile, in the UK, seagrasses are not only home to numerous species of fish, they also help stabilize sandy beaches, and their roots can reduce coastal erosion. And, overall, the plants filter bacteria, pathogens, and pollutants to improve the quality of seawater.

Carbon Storage

Seagrass has a carbon capture function too. Its leaves, which are covered in a porous cuticle layer, are ideal for sequestering carbon dioxide. An estimated 27.4 teragrams (over 30.2 million tons) of carbon are absorbed every year, globally amounting to as much as 19.9 billion metric tons (21.9 billion tons). Although lower compared with seaweed, which is thought to retain some 153 teragrams (over 168.6 million tons) annually, seagrass nonetheless stores about 35 times more carbon than rainforests and accounts for approximately 20% of the carbon buried in the sea every year. This means the plant can help alleviate local acidification by an estimated 30%.

Seagrass At Risk

About one-fifth of the world’s seagrass meadows have disappeared over the past 100 years or so. In a review into seagrass ecosystems, Unsworth and Jones claimed: “[…] Bold steps are needed through improved legal instruments to halt damaging factors such as bottom trawling, prevent use of damaging boating activities, and to apportion responsibility for poor water quality that is causing the slow death of seagrass globally.”

In the UK, for example, seagrass is now in a state of decline as a result of nutrient pollution from sewage and livestock waste, based on a study by Project Seagrass.  

Unsworth commented: “The world needs to rethink the management of our coastal environment that includes realistic compensation and mitigation schemes that not only prevent damage, but also drive the restoration, enhancement, and creation of seagrass habitat. We also need a major shift in how we perceive the status of our marine environment by examining historical information, not just recent ecological baselines.”

Conservation and Restoration

Project Seagrass’s scientific research informs the organization’s global program work—10 projects across 14 countries have been carried out involving more than 1,000 volunteers. Among them are an initiative to assess seagrass meadows and biodiversity in the Myeik Archipelago in Myanmar, a pilot nursery in south Wales to establish whether seagrass can be grown at scale to assist in restoration efforts, an examination of how a change in land use affects the coast in Quintana Roo in Mexico, and community action to help conserve seagrass in southeast Asia.

Education, Volunteering, and Citizen Scientists

Apart from raising awareness through education programs for school children, toolkits for researchers and student internships, Project Seagrass is keen to see people getting involved in practical restoration work.

Mike Furness volunteered to help plant seagrass seeds along the Pembrokeshire coast in Wales as part of a group of some 30 to 40 people over four days.

He said: “We were going to help to sow a seagrass meadow, not just a small patch but a whole ‘field.’ The logistics are daunting to think about—everything from feeding and accommodating the team to previously organizing hundreds of school children to fill and tie 20,000 small bags on to 20 km [12.4 miles] of ropes. Not to mention the harvesting and preparation of three-fourths of a million seeds. An astounding effort.”

He explained: “The seeds had been harvested in late summer and needed to spend several months rotting out of the harvested grass before being sown. By late February, they were ripe for planting and being kept in their own dedicated fridge. If you’ve ever walked through a geothermal area amidst the steam of fumaroles [volcanic vents], you will know the smell that hits you when that fridge door is opened! It’s pungent. It’s sulfurous. It’s clinging. But, you know what, by the end of the day it virtually disappears. And on the morning of day two, when it hits you again, you begin to realize—that’s the smell of success, bring it on.”

The organization’s website and mobile app SeagrassSpotter, used to record seagrass sightings and absences, encourages people to act as “citizen scientists.” Since its launch in 2016, more than 3,500 users across 105 countries have recorded over 7,000 sightings and 45 different species of seagrass. A new version allows people to record data on where seagrass may once have been present.

Cullen-Unsworth, chief executive officer at Project Seagrass, said: “Over the last 10 years, we have successfully raised awareness of the importance of seagrass and the role it plays in tackling the biodiversity and climate crises. Now we must accelerate efforts to protect and restore this vital habitat. Everyone can have a part to play in securing a future for seagrass, and SeagrassSpotter is a great tool to engage and connect people in seagrass science and mapping all over the world.”

*Yasmin Prabhudas is a freelance journalist working mainly for non-profit organizations, labor unions, the education sector, and government agencies.

In the eleventh edition of its World Migration Report, the UN’s International Organization on Migration provided an overview of global migrations. The report, focusing on data from 2022, includes global migration trends from various causes, including conflict and violence and disasters. A key finding is that 32.6 million new internal displacements of people in 2022 were from disasters.   

1. By the end of 2022, there were 60.9 million new internal displacements, of which 32.6 million (53%) were triggered by disasters. 

2. In Africa, the largest number of disaster displacements occurred in Nigeria (about 2.4 million), followed by Somalia (1.2 million), Ethiopia (873,000), and South Sudan (596,000). 

3. Pakistan had the largest number of disaster displacements in the world, with more than 8 million, in part due to widespread flooding. 

4. The Philippines had the second largest number of disaster displacements of nearly 5.5 million, largely in response to typhoons and tropical storms. China was third, with over 3.6 million. 

5. Bangladesh also experienced record-breaking floods in 2022, triggering over 1.5 million displacements. 

6. In Europe, France (45,000) and Spain (31,000) had the largest number of displacements, mostly triggered by wildfires. 

7. In Latin America and the Caribbean, Brazil had the largest number of displacements of 708,000 due to floods from heavy rains. This was followed by Colombia (281,000) from floods and Cuba (90,000) from Hurricane Ian. 

8. In North America, the US had 675,000 movements, almost half of which were due to Hurricane Ian. Canada had 15,000 displacements. 

9. In Oceania, Australia had the largest disaster displacements with 17,000 due to floods, followed by Papua New Guinea (9,600).  

Note: A “significant portion of the global total of displacements by disasters is usually associated with short-term evacuations in a relatively safe and orderly manner.” 

Sources: 

• https://publications.iom.int/books/world-migration-report-2024  

*By Gordon Cairns

What is cool and causes warming?

This may sound like a children’s joke or riddle aside, the answer itself is dry: hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), a man-made compound used primarily as a refrigerant.

Created to replace chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), HFCs help keep food fresh in the refrigerator and indoor spaces temperate through air conditioning. However, HFCs account for a small but significant share of global greenhouse gases emissions. Anthropogenic emissions of fluorinated gases rose to around 2.3% of total greenhouse gas emissions in 2019 from around 1% in 1990, according to the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)’s Sixth Assessment Report, published in 2021.

Slow Leaking of HFCs

In a recent podcast on Resources Radio, Lisa Rennels, a PhD candidate at the University of California, Berkeley, and an Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education Fellow with the National Center for Environmental Economics at the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), explained why HFCs are such a potent contributor to global warming.

“While they're in the atmosphere, they have a much larger impact on temperature than a gas like carbon dioxide,” she said. “We see this when we compare what we call ‘temperature impulse responses,’ which is the response of the global temperature to a pulse of a greenhouse gas emission.”

She added: “While carbon dioxide is emitted from activities like fossil fuel combustion that happens all at once, HFCs are integral components to technologies like air conditioners, and they tend to leak out slowly over time at a much lower rate. These different factors are relevant when we try to project their emissions and the impacts on climate change.”

Rising Air Conditioning and Energy Demand

More than 90% of the 780,000 tons of high-GWP HFCs manufactured annually are used for making necessities of life—refrigeration and air conditioning, Dr. Ashley Woodcock, professor of respiratory medicine at University of Manchester in the UK, wrote in a 2023 article in the New England Journal of Medicine.

As the world continues to get warmer—2023 was the warmest year on record, according to the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration—life in urban and other communities would become increasingly difficult without indoor cooling.

The International Energy Agency (IEA) estimated that two out of three households in the world will have an air conditioning unit by 2050, doubling the amount from today and increasing the demand for greenhouse gases if unabated on the same path.

Meanwhile, the IEA also projected that space cooling in the buildings sector will account for 16% of global electricity consumption and just under 30% of total electricity in the buildings sector.

Yet ensuring that cooling needs are met does not necessitate having to solely focus on manufacturing more air conditioning units. New buildings can be constructed in a way that prioritizes passive solutions for keeping temperatures comfortable and building occupants can be educated about setting the air conditioner temperature to a lower power output point. Furthermore, new air-conditioning equipment built in the future will have better energy efficiency than the units being made today, the IEA said in its 2018 report, “The Future of Cooling.”

Smuggling of HFCs

Ironically, HFCs were introduced to help save the ozone layer by replacing hazardous chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) per the Montreal Protocol of 1987. Now HFCs are deemed too hazardous to the environment too, and their use is being gradually reduced by the Kigali Amendment of the Montreal Protocol which will see their use cut by 85% by 2036. The Kigali Amendment was signed in 2016, went into effect on January 1, 2019, and was ratified by 157 countries as of April 10, 2024, including by the United States on September 21, 2022. 

Changing heating and cooling systems is neither cheap nor easy. Grocers may face costs of more than $1 million a store to convert to non-HFC cooling, the Food Industry Association has predicted.  Moreover, as the Kigali Amendment restrictions come into force, those in need of HFCs are resorting to desperate measures. Earlier this year, Michael Hart of San Diego, California, became the first person to be charged with smuggling HFCs into the United States from Mexico, the US Attorney’s Office in the Southern District of California said in March. The indictment alleges Hart carried the refrigerants across the border into California in his vehicle, hiding them under a tarp and tools.

A few weeks later, Resonac America in San Jose, California, was caught illegally importing approximately 6,208 pounds of these gases into the Port of Los Angeles, according to an article in Scientific American. Resonac America agreed to pay a penalty of over $400,000 and has been ordered to destroy 1,693 pounds of HFCs, said the US Environmental Protection Agency’s Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance. If these chemicals had been released into the atmosphere, this would have been about 41,677 metric tons of CO2e, or the amount of emissions from powering 8,225 homes with electricity for one year, Scientific American said.

Alternative Refrigerants Available

There are a variety of climate-friendly, energy-efficient, safe and proven HFC alternatives already available. These alternatives include natural refrigerants, HFCs such as R32, Hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs), and a blend of HFC and HFO.

Another climate-friendly alternative to HFCs in a number of supermarkets’ large refrigeration systems are CO2 cascade systems. They have at least two refrigeration systems connected in series, with a higher-temperature side and a lower-temperature side. In these cycles, refrigerants with different freezing and boiling points are used, and these systems are more efficient than conventional refrigeration systems.

Natural refrigerants, including hydrocarbons and ammonia, are also considered, given their low GWP and low ozone-depleting properties. However, ammonia is hazardous and corrosive despite its high energy efficiency, and hydrocarbons such as R-600a (isobutane) and R-290 (propane) are highly flammable and unfit for retrofitting. Careful consideration is thus necessary when implementing alternative refrigerants.

Consumers can help reduce HFCs by researching whether the air conditioning in the new car or refrigerator they are considering to buy uses greenhouse gases and if there is an HFC-free alternative. Furthermore, by regularly maintaining the equipment in cars and houses, one can also help reduce leaks of these chemicals as well as ensure their proper end-of-life recycling.

Respiratory Inhalers and HFCs

In addition to refrigerants, HFCs are used as a propellant in the respiratory inhalers that tens of millions of people use to treat their asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

While inhalers comprise a small percentage of the world’s HFC use, each asthma inhaler releases HFC—and based on HFC manufacturing industry estimates to the UN Environment Programme’s Ozone Secretariat, at least 800 million to 825 million inhalers were made in 2021 alone. Their usage translated into the release of around 10,700 tons of HFC-134a and HFC-227ea into the atmosphere.

According to Dr. Woodcock, inhalers that use HFCs as propellants generate the same carbon footprint emissions as a small family car traveling 200 miles. In the UK, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) advises patients about how different inhalers have different carbon footprints—including being comparable to long car drives—and suggests the patients consider “dry powder” inhalers.

In Dr. Woodcock’s article in the New England Journal of Medicine, he said that a campaign to promote “greener” inhalers to the public and clinicians in Greater Manchester, England, helped reduce the inhaler carbon footprint by 10%, equivalent to taking 3,400 cars off the road. Moreover, In November 2022, the Greater Manchester Integrated Care Partnership stated that over 300,000 inhalers (with carbon emissions equivalent to 28,000 cars) were prescribed every month, indicating a switch to dry powder inhalers can help reduce carbon footprint to less than 1kg (2.2 lbs) of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) per device. There is also guidance from the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence for making a decision based on the type of inhaler, whether the inhaler contains HFCs, and its carbon footprint.

The Montreal Agreement has been successful in reaching its targets to eliminate use of CFCs, and there’s reason to believe that, with the wider public’s assistance, the Kigali Amendment’s phase out of HFCs can also be achieved.

*Gordon Cairns is a freelance journalist and teacher of English and Forest Schools based in Scotland.

Beginning in 2005 in the European Union, governments have been developing ETS (emission trading systems) and carbon taxes to offset greenhouse gas emissions. In the eleventh edition of its annual State and Trends of Carbon Pricing Report, the World Bank provided an overview of global carbon pricing activities. A key finding is that around 24% of global carbon dioxide emissions were covered by carbon taxes and ETS in 2024; this translates into an increase of over 400 million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent from 2023.   

1. There are now 75 carbon taxes and ETS globally, reflecting both national and subnational activities. 

2. While a combination of carbon tax and ETS is now implemented in Europe, Canada, Mexico, and other parts of the world, many of the 195 countries that signed the Paris Agreement in 2016 have yet to act. 

3. Carbon pricing instruments cover around 24% of global carbon dioxide emissions, or around 13 gigatons of carbon dioxide equivalent. This is up from 7% coverage seen a decade ago. 

4. Carbon pricing revenues in 2023 exceeded $100 billion for the first time. Over half of this revenue was used to fund climate- and nature-related programs. 

5. The recommended 2030 carbon price range ($63–$127 per ton of carbon dioxide equivalent) has been met in the Netherlands, Norway, Finland, and Sweden, while Switzerland, Liechtenstein, and Uruguay have exceeded this amount. 

6. ETS and carbon tax are both implemented in parts of Canada (British Columbia and Manitoba); the EU (including Spain, France, UK, and the Netherlands); and parts of Mexico. 

7. Carbon taxes are implemented in the Northwest Territories (Canada); parts of Mexico (including Zacatecas and Durango); South America (including Colombia, Chile, and Argentina); Ukraine; South Africa; and Asia (Japan, Taiwan, and Singapore). 

8. ETS is implemented in parts of Canada (including Alberta and Ontario); parts of the EU (including Germany, Italy, and Belgium); Kazakhstan; China; and parts of Oceania (including Australia, New Zealand, and Indonesia). 

9. In the US, ETS is implemented in Washington and California. The 11 Mid-Atlantic and Northeast states in the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative have active carbon pricing instruments as well. 

10. Most of Africa does not have ETS or carbon tax, but they are under consideration or development in Morocco, Mauritania, Senegal, Côte d'Ivoire, Botswana, and Kenya.  

Sources: 

• https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/entities/publication/b0d66765-299c-4fb8-921f-61f6bb979087  

• https://icapcarbonaction.com/en/about-emissions-trading-systems  

*By Mark Smith

They say home is where the heart is, but for someone’s heart to be at home they need to feel safe and secure.

What happens when that safety and security are upended? What happens when natural disasters like flooding or wildfires wreak havoc? Do people and communities stay and rebuild, or do they face this new reality and move away and start again?

This leave-or-stay dilemma is gripping ever-increasing numbers of communities that are faced with elements of the current climate crisis.

The concept of the “managed retreat” is gaining traction as factors including flooding and rising sea levels have forced policymakers, engineers, and academics to shift their focus away from holding nature back—through technology such as sea walls—to simply getting out of nature’s way.

But the idea of resettlement is not accepted by all, with the word “retreat” itself being too much for some to accept, especially when their roots in their current communities run deep.

When 'Safe' Isn't

Climate-related events that have detrimental impacts on communities around the world are on the rise.

According to USA Facts, which relies on government statistics, over the last 40 years, the number of natural disasters in the US that cost over $1 billion has increased. In the 1980s, the US averaged three billion-dollar disasters a year, compared with an average of 13 such disasters a year in the 2010s.

“Not only are natural disasters occurring more frequently, but the average cost and death toll from each is up as well,” USA Facts said. It added that the National Centers for Environmental Information, which has kept track of billion-dollar natural disasters since 1980, cites “climate change as a critical reason for the increase."

Globally, natural disasters displace millions of people each year, said Our World in Data, another fact-based resource that collects data and research related to the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals and is published by Global Change Data Lab.

Over the last century, deaths from disasters have “fallen significantly,” thanks to early warning systems, coordinated responses, and other relief efforts, noted Our World in Data authors Hannah Ritchie and Dr. Pablo Rosado. But “the economic costs of extreme events can be severe and hard to recover from. This is particularly true in lower-income countries,” wrote University of Oxford Professor Max Roser, founder of Our World in Data.

A ‘New Normal’?

Whether it is temperatures peaking at a sweltering 116° F in Sardinia or homes literally falling off English cliffs due to coastal erosion, many climate experts fear the world could be heading toward a worrying “new normal.”  

In fact, some studies predict damage from flooding may increase 160%–240% globally, and flood deaths may soar 70%–83% by 2100, even under a scenario of a mere 1.5°C (2.7°F) increase in average global temperatures. Another study predicted that in the US by 2100, nearly 500 coastal communities and 4.2 million residents may face flood disruption due to rises in sea levels.

With this kind of new reality in mind, experts are increasingly pondering what alternative approaches are available if mitigating against the intensifying magnitude of such extreme events is no longer possible.

What Is a Managed Retreat?

One view gaining ground is the belief that the only solution for impacted communities is to uproot and start again elsewhere. Known as “managed retreat,” the concept involves transferring people, possessions, and, if necessary, entire buildings to a safe location where a new community can be formed.

“It is this idea that there are places that will either be too expensive or too dangerous—or perhaps simply impossible—to maintain or to continue to rebuild in the same way after a disaster,” said Dr. Leah Dundon, director and an expert on managed retreats from Vanderbilt Climate Change Initiative at the Vanderbilt University School of Engineering in Nashville, Tennessee. “So, should we as a society consider moving humans or human structures away from that area permanently?”

Resettlements, Then and Now

The concept is not a new one, with the town of Niobrara, Nebraska, being the earliest US wholesale flood relocation.

In March 1881, an ice dam on the Missouri River flooded up to 100 miles upstream, putting Niobrara under more than 6 feet of water. Residents chose to move their entire town, and in the space of just two months, buildings were removed from their foundations and dragged upslope by horses to a site just under 2.5km (about 1.5 miles) away. By January 1882, most homes and all the town’s commercial buildings were in their new places.

More recently, the entire Louisiana town of Isle de Jean Charles was forced to pack up and move. Many of the inhabitants are members of or related to Native American tribes, such as the Biloxi-Chitimacha-Choctaw. But since 1955, the island has seen 98% of its land lost to coastal erosion; a major factor are the levees in the Mississippi River that disrupt natural sediment replenishment of the island’s marshes. 

In 2016, the community teamed up with the State of Louisiana to enter a competition run by the US Department of Housing and Urban Development. Known as The National Disaster Resilience Competition, it was the first fund of its kind “to help communities respond to climate change, save public resources, revitalize and modernize infrastructure, and improve access to opportunity for vulnerable populations.” Almost $1 billion was awarded to 13 states and communities.

Entrants had to explain why they should receive a $48.3 million grant, with Isle de Jean Charles’s bid proving successful. Work then began to find a suitable new home.

In December 2018, a 515-acre patch of rural land in Terrebonne Parish was bought for $11.7 million. A plan was put in place to build 120 homes, commercial and retail buildings, a community center and walking trails.

Since August 2022, a total of 34 families have moved to the new community, while others have moved elsewhere in the state but retain the option of joining the community later.

Challenges

There are significant challenges to managed retreats. The financial cost can be huge, not just in terms of moving people and building new homes, but also compensating for loss of land or property. A 2019 article, “Managed Retreat in the US,” published in One Earth, estimated that $1.4 trillion of real estate is located within 700 feet of the US coast. As sea-level rises are projected to impact between 4 million and 13 million people, if 1 in 10 of these communities needed to be moved to a managed retreat, it would cost an estimated $140 billion, almost 30 times what the Federal Emergency Management Agency has so far spent on managed retreats.

And uprooting from a home is often not just about money. It is about severing familiar connections, something known as “place attachment,” and it poses a significant challenge. 

“People become very attached to where they live and don't want to leave,” said Dundon, whose research has previously focused on the concept of managed retreats. She said psychology, rather than just logistics and finance, plays a huge part in making managed retreats viable.

“Imagine if you lived in the same house your great-great grandparents lived in that has been passed down through the generations and suddenly you are told to leave, but you will get paid for the house.” 

The debate previously came to a head in California, where some of its coastline is vulnerable to rising sea levels. The California Coastal Commission told cities to look at retreat as a potential option, but many local governments rejected the idea. The situation in California has also led to legal challenges and political disagreement about the best way forward.

Are Attitudes Changing?

But according to Dundon, there may come a time where pragmatism—and cost—force more people to accept the idea.

Dundon said: “I think many people will become more concerned, or at least familiar, with issues of retreat when they see extremely expensive prices for flood insurance or cannot get a bank to write a mortgage on a house that is in an area of increasing climate risk.”

She added that this level of acceptance differs around the world. Her research found that European countries seem to have a more developed process and case studies about successful retreats.

“In the US,” she continued, “there are often obligations for local or other governments to maintain certain infrastructure once it is there and once people become dependent on it, so it may not be as easy for a local government to, for example, say they will not repair a road [the] next time it floods.”

According to Dundon, the very word “retreat” also had connotations that left many people feeling uneasy when faced with the prospect of having to uproot.

"The very phrase ‘managed retreat’ can be problematic. It sounds too defeatist to many, and people want their public officials to ‘do something’, not ‘retreat’,” she added.  But as attitudes and realities change, so too does the need to evolve and adapt at policy level, with new designs and disaster planning evolving to embrace the concept of managed retreats.

Dundon said: “There is a lot of interest in sustainability design, resiliency planning and more, right across the globe, and I see a lot in the US. Climate change is something that is not going away. The question is how much worse will we let it get … adaptation to a world with a different climate has become the reality.”

*Mark Smith is a journalist and author from the UK. He has written on subjects ranging from business and technology to world affairs, history, and popular culture for the Guardian, BBC, Telegraph, and magazines in the United States, Europe, and Southeast Asia.